Maritime Cybersecurity A Guide for Leaders and Managers Second Edition (v2.3, 01/2025) by Gary C. Kessler & Steven D. Shepard

---

This Web page is devoted to providing updated or additional information with which to supplement Maritime Cybersecurity: A Guide for Leaders and Managers.

• References
• Ancillary Material
• About the Authors and the Book

---

References

This section contains all references for the book plus many additional resources. Preface Chapter 1. The Maritime Transportation System (MTS) Chapter 2. Cybersecurity Basics Chapter 3. Case Studies: Cyber Attacks on the Maritime Sector Chapter 4. Ports and Cybersecurity Chapter 5. Shipboard Communication Systems Chapter 6. Navigation Systems Chapter 7. Operational Technology and Autonomous Systems Chapter 8. Strategies for Maritime Cyberdefense Chapter 9. Concluding Thoughts

Preface

• Ćelić, J., Vukšić, M., Baždarić, R., & Cuculić, A. (2025, April 11). The Challenges of Cyber Resilience in the Maritime Sector: Addressing the Weak Awareness of the Dangers Caused by Cyber Threats. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 13(4), 762. DOI: 10.3390/jmse13040762
• CEOs and CISOs Disagree on Cyber Strategies. (2020, May 20). Help Net Security. https://www.helpnetsecurity.com/2020/05/20/ceos-cisos-disparities/
• Cimpanu, C. (2018, December 12). Ships Infected With Ransomware, USB Malware, Worms. ZDNet. https://www.zdnet.com/article/ships-infected-with-ransomware-usb-malware-worms/
• Cook, K.S., & Nichols, D.L. (2017). Cyber Seaworthiness: A Call to Action. In DiRenzo III, J., Drumhiller, N.K., & Roberts, F.S. (Eds.) (2017). Issues in Maritime Cyber Security, pp. 81-85. Washington, D.C.: Westphalia Press.
• DiRenzo III, J., Drumhiller, N.K., & Roberts, F.S. (Eds.) (2017). Issues in Maritime Cyber Security. Washington, D.C.: Westphalia Press.
• Germond, B. (2023, July 10). Op-Ed: The Geopolitics of Maritime Cybersecurity. MarineLog. https://www.marinelog.com/views/op-eds/op-ed-the-geopolitics-of-maritime-cybersecurity/
• Harish, A.V., Tam, K., & Jones, K. (2024, October 10). Literature Review of Maritime Cyber Security: The First Decade. Maritime Technology and Research, 7(2), 273805. DOI: 10.33175/mtr.2025.273805
• Jones, J., & Ralby, I. (2024, March 11). Focus on the Fundamentals: The Siren Song of Technology in Maritime Security. Center for International Maritime Security (CIMSEC. https://cimsec.org/focus-on-the-fundamentals-the-siren-song-of-technology-in-maritime-security/
• Jones, K.D., Tam, K., & Papadaki, M. (2016, April 22). Threats and Impacts in Maritime Cyber Security. Engineering & Technology Reference. DOI: 10.1049/etr.2015.0123
• Kanwal, K., Shi, W., Kontovas, C., Yang, Z., & Chang, C.-H. (2022, September 16). Maritime Cybersecurity: Are Onboard Systems Ready? Maritime Policy & Management. DOI: 10.1080/03088839.2022.2124464
• Manyara, S. (2022, January 6). Rising Cyber Exposure in Asia Maritime Shipping. The Asset. https://www.theasset.com/viewpoint/45794/rising-cyber-exposure-in-asia-maritime-shipping
• Maritime Cyber Attacks Increase 900%. (2020, July 20). MarineLink. https://www.marinelink.com/news/maritime-cyber-attacks-increase-480311
• Marsh & Microsoft. (2019, September). 2019 Global Cyber Risk Perception Survey. https://www.microsoft.com/security/blog/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/Marsh-Microsoft-2019-Global-Cyber-Risk-Perception-Survey.pdf
• Rundle, J. (2019, July 26). Coast Guard Details February Cyberattack on Ship. The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/coast-guard-details-february-cyberattack-on-ship-11564133401
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (n.d.). Maritime Cyber Readiness Branch. https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Our-Organization/CGCYBER/Maritime-Cyber-Readiness-Branch/
• Waterman, S. (2019, March 28). Coast Guard 'Cyber Boarding' Shows Online Risks to Maritime Sector. Homeland Security Today. https://www.hstoday.us/federal-pages/dhs/uscg/coast-guard-cyber-boarding-shows-online-risks-to-maritime-sector/
• Zheng, T.X. (2022, August 18). Bracing for the Rising Tide of Cyber Threats Against the Maritime Industry. Seatrade Maritime News. https://www.seatrade-maritime.com/opinions-analysis/bracing-rising-tide-cyber-threats-against-maritime-industry

[Top of Section | Top of Page]
Chapter 1. The Maritime Transportation System (MTS)

• Akpan, F., Bendiab, G., Shiaeles, S., Karamperidis, S., & Michaloliakos, M. (2022,March 7). Cybersecurity Challenges in the Maritime Sector. Network, 2(1), 123-138. DOI: 10.3390/network2010009
• Alderson, D.L., Funk, D., & Gera, R. (2020, December). Analysis of the Global Maritime Transportation System as a Layered Network. Journal of Transportation Security, 13, 291–325. DOI: 10.1007/s12198-019-00204-z
• Bebbington, T. (2021, August 6). Cyberattack or Coincidence? Seatrade Maritime News. https://www.seatrade-maritime.com/regulation/less-25-bulkers-and-tankers-will-attain-eexi-compliance
• Cohen, J. (2021). Where Zeros and Ones Sink Ships - Cyber Warfare Enters the Naval Battlespace. Naval Forces, 42(5), 49-51.
• Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA). (2020, March 24). Critical Infrastructure Sectors. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). https://www.cisa.gov/critical-infrastructure-sectors
• Daum, O. (2019, January). Cyber Security in the Maritime Sector. Journal of Maritime Law and Commerce, 50(1), 1-19.
• Foote, R. (2017) Cybersecurity in the Marine Transportation Sector: Protecting Intellectual Property to Keep Our Ports, Facilities, and Vessels Safe from Cyber Threats. Cybaris, 8(2), article 3. https://open.mitchellhamline.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1073&context=cybaris
• Jakobsen, E.W., Haugland, L.M., Abrahamoglu, S., Osman, M.S., Sewraz, D., & Dineshkar, B. (2022, January). The Leading Maritime Cities of the World 2022. Menon Economics and DNV. https://www.menon.no/wp-content/uploads/Leading-Maritime-Cities-of-the-world-2022-Final-report-12-Jan.pdf
• Kessler, G.C. (2019, Spring). Cybersecurity in the Maritime Domain. Proceedings of the USCG Marine Safety & Security Council, 76(1), 34-39. https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/Proceedings%20Magazine/Archive/2019/Vol76_No1_Spring2019.pdf
• Kiln. (n.d.). Ship Map. https://www.shipmap.org/
• Mansouri, M., Gorod, A., Wakeman, T.H., & Sauser, B. (2009). A Systems Approach to Governance in Maritime Transportation System of Systems. IEEE International Conference on System of Systems Engineering (SoSE), Albuquerque, NM, May 30 - June 3, 2009.
• Neo, M. (2021). The Rising Threat of Maritime Cyber-attacks: Level of Maritime Cyber-security Preparedness along the Straits of Malacca and Singapore. Royal Australian Navy Sea Power Soundings, 42, 1-38. https://www.navy.gov.au/sites/default/files/documents/Soundings_Papers_42_2021.pdf
• Oruç, A. (2020, October 5). Claims of State-Sponsored Cyberattack in the Maritime Industry. International Naval Engineering Conference and Exhibition (INEC 2020). DOI: 10.24868/issn.2515-818X.2020.021
• Shipowner.io. (2018). The World's First Distributed Ledger Platform Focused on Maritime Assets & Services. White Paper. https://shipowner.io/whitepaper
• United Nations. (2019). Fact Sheet #13: World Seaborne Trade. U.N. Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). https://unctad.org/en/PublicationChapters/tdstat44_FS13_en.pdf
• United Nations. (2019). Fact Sheet #14: Merchant Fleet. U.N. Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). https://unctad.org/en/PublicationChapters/tdstat44_FS13_en.pdf
• United Nations. (2019). Fact Sheet #15: Maritime Transport Indicators. U.N. Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD). https://unctad.org/en/PublicationChapters/tdstat44_FS13_en.pdf
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2018, October). Maritime Commerce Strategic Outlook. https://media.defense.gov/2018/Oct/05/2002049100/-1/-1/1/USCG%20MARITIME%20COMMERCE%20STRATEGIC%20OUTLOOK-RELEASABLE.PDF
• Visky, G., Lavrenovs, A., Orye, E., Heering, D., Tam, K., & Maennel, O.M. (2022, March). Multi-Purpose Cyber Environment for Maritime Sector. International Conference on Cyber Warfare and Security, 17(1). DOI: 10.34190/iccws.17.1.26
• Weaver, G.A., Feddersen, B., Marla, L., Wei, D., Rose, A., & Van Moera, M. (2022, April). Estimating Economic Losses From Cyber-attacks on Shipping Ports: An Optimization-based Approach. Transportation Research Part C: Emerging Technologies, 137. DOI: 10.1016/j.trc.2021.103423

[Top of Section | Top of Page]
Chapter 2. Cybersecurity Basics

• Barker, W.C., Scarfone, K., Fisher, W., & Souppaya, M. (2021, June). Cybersecurity Framework Profile for Ransomware Risk Management. Preliminary Draft National Institute of Standards and Technology Interagency or Internal Report (NISTIR) 8374, U.S. Department of Commerce. https://csrc.nist.gov/CSRC/media/Publications/nistir/draft/documents/NIST.IR.8374-preliminary-draft.pdf
• Barsky, N. (2021, August 31). The SEC Exposed Cybersecurity's Fatal Flaw - Executive Resistance To Bad News. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/noahbarsky/2021/08/31/the-sec-exposed-cybersecuritys-fatal-flaw---executive-resistance-to-bad-news/?sh=37c8b2922339
• Biddle, S. (2016, August 19). The NSA Leak is Real, Snowden Documents Confirm. The Intercept. https://theintercept.com/2016/08/19/the-nsa-was-hacked-snowden-documents-confirm/
• Bracken, B. (2021, November 30). Lloyd's Carves Out Cyber-Insurance Exclusions for State-Sponsored Attacks. threatpost. https://threatpost.com/lloyds-cyber-insurance-exclusions/176669/
• Brenner, B. (2017, May 16). WannaCry: The Ransomware Worm That Didn't Arrive on a Phishing Hook. Naked Security. https://nakedsecurity.sophos.com/2017/05/17/wannacry-the-ransomware-worm-that-didnt-arrive-on-a-phishing-hook/
• Caltagirone, S., Pendergast, A., & Betz, C. (2013, May 7). The Diamond Model of Intrusion Analysis. Technical Report, U.S. Department of Defense. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA586960.pdf
• Cantelli-Forti, A, Colajanni, M., & Russo, S. (2023, October). Penetrating the Silence: Data Exfiltration in Maritime and Underwater Scenarios. 1st International Workshop on Maritime Communication and Security (MarCaS), 2023 IEEE 48th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Daytona Beach, FL, USA, 2-5 October 2023. DOI: 10.1109/LCN58197.2023.10223402
• Chambers, S. (2020, June 5). Number of Shipping Cyber Attacks Leaps 400% Since February. Splash247.com. https://splash247.com/number-of-shipping-cyber-attacks-leaps-400-since-february/
• Cimpanu, C. (2020, August 2). Google: Eleven Zero-Days Detected in the Wild in the First Half of 2020. ZDNet. https://www.zdnet.com/article/google-eleven-zero-days-detected-in-the-wild-in-the-first-half-of-2020/
• Cisco Systems. (n.d.). What is an Advanced Persistent Threat (APT)? https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/products/security/advanced-persistent-threat.html
• Cisco Systems. (n.d.). What is Malware? https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/products/security/advanced-malware-protection/what-is-malware.html
• Coker, J. (2021, August 9). Average Ransomware Demands Surge by 518% in 2021. Information Security Magazine. https://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/news/ransomware-demands-surge-2021/
• Collier, K. (2019, May 10). Crippling Ransomware Attacks Targeting US Cities on the Rise. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2019/05/10/politics/ransomware-attacks-us-cities/index.html
• Cook, S. (2020, June 15). 2018-2020 Ransomware Statistics and Facts. Comparitech. https://www.comparitech.com/antivirus/ransomware-statistics/
• Cox, J. (2019, September 30). Legit-Looking iPhone Lightning Cables That Hack You Will be Mass Produced and Sold. Motherboard Tech by Vice. https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/3kx5nk/fake-apple-lightning-cable-hacks-your-computer-omg-cable-mass-produced-sold
• Crawley, K. (2019, June 24). An Overview on Insider Attacks and Threat Awareness. AT&T Business. https://cybersecurity.att.com/blogs/security-essentials/insider-threats
• Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA). (2021, December 23). Alert (AA21-356A): Mitigating Log4Shell and Other Log4j-Related Vulnerabilities. U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). https://us-cert.cisa.gov/ncas/alerts/aa21-356a
• Ebert, C., Rekik, Y., & Karade, R. (2020, March-April). Security Test. IEEE Software, 37(2), 13-20. DOI: 10.1109/MS.2019.2958354
• Epsco-Ra Introduces New Cybersecurity Assessment Method. (2021, April 22). Digital Ship. https://thedigitalship.com/news/maritime-satellite-communications/item/7261-epsco-ra-introduces-new-cybersecurity-assessment-method
• Erstad, E., Hopcraft, R., Palbar, J.D., & Tam, K. (2023, June). CERP: A Maritime Cyber Risk Decision Making Tool. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 17(2), 269-279. DOI: 10.12716/1001.17.02.02
• Farrell, H. (2017, April 15). Hackers Have Just Dumped a Treasure Trove of NSA Data. Here's What it Means. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/monkey-cage/wp/2017/04/15/shadowy-hackers-have-just-dumped-a-treasure-trove-of-nsa-data-heres-what-it-means/
• FireEye. (n.d.). What is a Zero-Day Exploit? https://www.fireeye.com/current-threats/what-is-a-zero-day-exploit.html
• Gallagher, S. (2014, May 21). Sailor Convicted of Hacking Websites From Aboard Aircraft Carrier. Ars Technica. https://arstechnica.com/tech-policy/2014/05/sailor-convicted-of-hacking-websites-from-aboard-aircraft-carrier/
• Gatlan, S. (2021, June 30). CISA Releases New Ransomware Self-Assessment Security Audit Tool. BleepingComputer. https://www.bleepingcomputer.com/news/security/cisa-releases-new-ransomware-self-assessment-security-audit-tool/
• Johnston, R.G. (2020, July). Security Maxims. Right Brain Sekurity. http://rbsekurity.com/Papers/Johnston_Security_Maxims.pdf
• Kim, D. & Solomon, M.G. (2018). Fundamentals of Information Systems Security, 3rd. ed. Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning.
• Krebs, B. (2021, October 26). FBI Raids Chinese Point-of-Sale Giant PAX Technology. Krebs on Security. https://krebsonsecurity.com/2021/10/fbi-raids-chinese-point-of-sale-giant-pax-technology/
• Křoustek, J. (2017, May 12). WannaCry Ransomware That Infected Telefonica and NHS Hospitals is Spreading Aggressively, With Over 50,000 Attacks So Far Today. Avast Blog. https://blog.avast.com/ransomware-that-infected-telefonica-and-nhs-hospitals-is-spreading-aggressively-with-over-50000-attacks-so-far-today
• Kuhn, K. (2017, May-December). Cyber Risk Management in the Maritime Transportation System. Proceedings of the USCG Marine Safety & Security Council, 74(2), 65-69. https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/Proceedings%20Magazine/Archive/2017/Vol74_No2_May-Dec2017.pdf?ver=2018-01-23-080144-327
• Lakshmanan, R. (2021, December 18). New Local Attack Vector Expands the Attack Surface of Log4j Vulnerability. The Hacker News. https://thehackernews.com/2021/12/new-local-attack-vector-expands-attack.html
• Mactavish, A. (2020, August 7). Cyber-Crime — A Continuing Concern. Seatrade Maritime News. https://www.seatrade-maritime.com/opinions-analysis/cyber-crime-continuing-concern
• Maloney, S. (2018, January 9). What is an Advanced Persistent Threat (APT)? Cybereason. https://www.cybereason.com/blog/advanced-persistent-threat-apt
• Malwarebytes. (n.d.). Malware. https://www.malwarebytes.com/malware/
• Mandiant. (2013, February 18). APT1: Exposing One of China's Espionage Units. https://www.fireeye.com/content/dam/fireeye-www/services/pdfs/mandiant-apt1-report.pdf
• Mc Mahon, C. (2020, July 10). In Defence of the Human Factor. Frontiers of Psychology. DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01390
• Meland, P.H., Nesheim, D.A., Bernsmed, K., & Sindre, G. (2022, February). Assessing Cyber Threats for Storyless Systems. Journal of Information Security and Applications, 64, article 103050. DOI: 10.1016/j.jisa.2021.103050
• Meskauskas, T. (2021, November 19). CoinTicker Trojan (Mac). PCrisk. https://www.pcrisk.com/removal-guides/13951-cointicker-trojan-mac
• Microsoft. (n.d.). Support for Windows 7 Has Ended. https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/windows/windows-7-end-of-life-support-information
• Microsoft. (n.d.). Support for Windows XP Ended. https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/microsoft-365/windows/end-of-windows-xp-support
• Multi-State Information Sharing and Analysis Center (MS-ISAC). (2020, September). Ransomware Guide. Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA). https://www.cisa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/CISA_MS-ISAC_Ransomware%20Guide_S508C.pdf
• Newman, L.H. (2017, May 12). The Ransomware Meltdown Experts Warned About is Here. WIRED. https://www.wired.com/2017/05/ransomware-meltdown-experts-warned/
• Newman, L.H. (2021, December 18). 'The Internet Is on Fire.' WIRED. https://www.wired.com/story/log4j-flaw-hacking-internet/
• Norton, Q. (2014, May 20). Everything is Broken. The Message. https://medium.com/message/everything-is-broken-81e5f33a24e1#.sc7pf19g3
• Onishchenko, O., Shumilova, K., Volyanskyy, S., Volyanskaya, Y., & Volianskyi, Y. (2022, March). Ensuring Cyber Resilience of Ship Information Systems. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 16(1), 43-50. DOI: 10.12716/1001.16.01.04
• Palmer, D. (2021, April 23). Ransomware's Perfect Target: Why One Industry Needs to Improve Cybersecurity, Before It's Too Late. ZDNet. https://www.zdnet.com/article/ransomwares-perfect-target-why-one-industry-needs-to-improve-cybersecurity-before-its-too-late/
• Parker, D.B. (2015). Toward a New Framework for Information Security? In S. Bosworth, M.E. Kabay, & E. Whyne (Eds.), Computer Security Handbook, 6th ed., Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
• Petersen, R., Santos, D., Wetzel, K.A., Smith, M.C., & Witte, G. (2020, November). Workforce Framework for Cybersecurity (NICE Framework), Revision 1. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Special Publication (SP) 800-181, U.S. Department of Commerce. DOI: 10.6028/NIST.SP.800-181r1
• Petta, M. (2023). Malware, a Device Under the 1988 SUA Convention. International Law Studies, 100(1), 110-132. https://digital-commons.usnwc.edu/ils/vol100/iss1/3/
• Popa, B. (2017, November 7). Chinese Keyboard Maker Caught Tracking Typed Keys on CustomerÕs Computers. Softpedia News. https://news.softpedia.com/news/chinese-keyboard-maker-caught-tracking-types-keys-on-customer-s-computers-518423.shtml
• Progoulakis, I., Nikitakos, N., Rohmeyer, P., Bunin, B., Dalaklis, D., & Karamperidis, S. (2021, January 22). Perspectives on Cyber Security for Offshore Oil and Gas Assets. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 9(2), 112. DOI: 10.3390/jmse9020112
• Radware. (2017, March 13). History of DDoS Attacks. https://security.radware.com/ddos-knowledge-center/ddos-chronicles/ddos-attacks-history/
• Ramzan, Z. (2010). Phishing Attacks and Countermeasures. In M. Stamp & P. Stavroulakis (Eds.), Handbook of Information and Communication Security, Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
• Ranka, D. (2013, September 5). Inside Dalai Lama Website Attacks: Analyzing the 'Watering Hole Attacks.' Network Intelligence. https://niiconsulting.com/checkmate/2013/09/inside-dalai-lama-website-attacks-analyzing-watering-hole-attacks/
• Rose, S. (2021, August 4). Planning for a Zero Trust Architecture: A Starting Guide for Administrators. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) DRAFT White Paper, U.S. Department of Commerce. DOI: 10.6028/NIST.CSWP.08042021-draft
• Rose, S., Borchert, O., Mitchell, S., & Connelly, S. (2020, August). Zero Trust Architecture. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Special Publication (SP) 800-207, U.S. Department of Commerce. DOI: 10.6028/NIST.SP.800-207
• Ross, R., Pillitteri, V., Dempsey, K., Riddle, M., & Guissanie, G. (2020, February). Protecting Controlled Unclassified Information in Nonfederal Systems and Organizations, Revision 2. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Special Publication (SP) 800-171, U.S. Department of Commerce. DOI: 10.6028/NIST.SP.800-171r2
• Sahay, R., Estay, D.A.S., Meng, W., Jensen, C.D., & Barfod, M.B. (2023, May). A Comparative Risk Analysis on CyberShip System With STPA-Sec, STRIDE and CORAS. Computers & Security, 128, 103179. DOI: 10.1016/j.cose.2023.103179
• Soner, O., Kayisoglu, G., Bolat, P., & Tam K. (2024, October 1). An Investigation of Ransomware Incidents in the Maritime Industry: Exploring the Key Risk Factors. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part O: Journal of Risk and Reliability. DOI: 10.1177/1748006X241283093
• Stewart, K.C., & Hoover, A. (2020, March 30). An Introduction to the Cybersecurity Maturity Model Certification. Software Engineering Institute blog, Carnegie Mellon University. https://insights.sei.cmu.edu/blog/an-introduction-to-the-cybersecurity-maturity-model-certification-cmmc/
• Svilicic, B. , Kamahara, J., Rooks, M., & Yano, Y. (2019, September). Maritime Cyber Risk Management: An Experimental Ship Assessment. The Journal of Navigation, 72(5), 1108-1120. DOI: 10.1017/S0373463318001157
• Symantec Security Response. (2012, December 31). Internet Explorer Zero-Day Used in Watering Hole Attack: Q&A. Symantec Official Blog. https://www.symantec.com/connect/blogs/internet-explorer-zero-day-used-watering-hole-attack-qa
• Tam, K., Forshaw, K., & Jones, K. (2022, August 18). Method and System for Dynamically Assessing Current Risk Associated With a Maritime Activity. United States Patent Application 20220261483. https://www.freepatentsonline.com/20220261483.pdf
• Tam, K., & Jones, K. (2019, January 28). MaCRA: A Model-based Framework for Maritime Cyber-risk Assessment. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 18, 129-163. DOI: 10.1007/s13437-019-00162-2
• Tatar, U., Karabacak, B., Keskin, O.F., & .Foti, D.P. (2024, October). Charting New Waters with CRAMMTS: A Survey-Driven Cybersecurity Risk Analysis Method for Maritime Stakeholders. Computers & Security, 145, 104015. DOI: 10.1016/j.cose.2024.104015
• Tischer, M., Durumeric, Z., Bursztein, E., & Bailey, M. (2017, March/April). The Danger of USB Drives. IEEE Security & Privacy, 15(2), 62-69. DOI: 10.1109/MSP.2017.41
• Top 125 Network Security Tools. (n.d.). SecTools.Org. https://sectools.org/
• Tucci, A., Egan, D., Nelson, C., Roberts, F., Vijayagopal , L, & Whytlaw, R. (2023, Summer). Complex Risk Factors and Cascading Consequences in the Maritime Supply Chain. Proceedings of the USCG Marine Safety & Security Council, 80(1), 88-95. https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/Proceedings%20Magazine/Archive/2023/Vol80_No1_Sum23.pdf
• U.S. Department of Justice, Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA), National Security Agency (NSA), Australian Cyber Security Centre, & U.K. National Cyber Security Centre. (2022, February 9). 2021 Trends Show Increased Globalized Threat of Ransomware. Joint Cybersecurity Advisory, Prodcut ID: AA22-040A. https://www.cisa.gov/uscert/ncas/alerts/aa22-040a
• U.S. Department of Justice, National Security Agency (NSA), and Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA). (2022, February 16). Russian State-Sponsored Cyber Actors Target Cleared Defense Contractor Networks to Obtain Sensitive U.S. Technology. Joint Cybersecurity Advisory, Prodcut ID: AA22-047A; TLP:WHITE. https://www.cisa.gov/uscert/ncas/alerts/aa22-047a
• Whitman, M.E. & Mattord, H.J. (2018). Principles of Information Security, 6th. ed. Boston: Cengage Learning.
• Zetter, K. (2014). Countdown to Zero Day: Stuxnet and the Launch of the World's First Digital Weapon. New York: Crown.
• Zetter, K. (2014, May 7). Network Admin Allegedly Hacked Navy — While on an Aircraft Carrier. WIRED. https://www.wired.com/2014/05/navy-sysadmin-hacking/

[Top of Section | Top of Page]
Chapter 3. Case Studies: Cyber Attacks on the Maritime Sector

• Abrams, L. (2018, August 28). Beware of Fake "Shipping Docs" Malspam Pushing the DarkComet RAT. Bleeping Computer. https://www.bleepingcomputer.com/news/security/beware-of-fake-shipping-docs-malspam-pushing-the-darkcomet-rat/
• Australian Shipbuilder Austal Hit by Cyber Attack, Extortion Attempt. (2018, November 2). NavalToday.com. https://www.navaltoday.com/2018/11/02/australian-shipbuilder-austal-hit-by-cyber-attack-extortion-attempt/
• Bank of England. (2022, January). General Insurance Stress Test 2022: Scenario Specification, Guidelines and Instructions (DRAFT). Prudential Regulation Authority. https://www.bankofengland.co.uk/-/media/boe/files/prudential-regulation/letter/2022/january/general-insurance-stress-test-2022-instructions.pdf
• Bankes-Hughes, L. (2015, August 27). Global: Limassol-based Shipping Company Victim of Cyber Fraud. Bunkerspot. https://www.bunkerspot.com/latest-news/40447-global-limassol-based-shipping-company-victim-of-cyber-fraud
• Birkett, H. (2015, August 27). Hackers Steal $644,000 From a Cyprus Shipping Company. Splash247.com. https://splash247.com/hackers-steal-644000-from-a-cyprus-shipping-company/
• Bochman, A., & Ralby, I. (2021, December 6). Cybersecurity Concerns for the Energy Sector in the Maritime Domain. Atlantic Council. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/12/CYBERSECURITY-CONCERNS-FOR-THE-ENERGY-SECTOR-IN-THE-MARITIME-DOMAIN-v4.pdf
• Bogle, A. (2018, March 15). Svitzer Employee Details Stolen in Data Breach Affecting Almost Half of its Australian Employees. ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-03-15/sensitive-data-stolen-from-global-shipping-company-svitzer/9552600
• Burgess, J. (2013, April 30). Offshore Drill Rigs at Threat From Computer Viruses. Oilprice.com. https://oilprice.com/Latest-Energy-News/World-News/Offshore-Drill-Rigs-at-Threat-from-Computer-Viruses.html
• Chambers, S. (2020, April 10). MSC Website Down, Carrier Admits it Might Have Been Hit by Malware. Splash247.com. https://splash247.com/msc-website-down-carrier-admits-it-might-have-been-hit-by-malware/
• Chesney, R. (2021, August 25). SolarWinds and the Holiday Bear Campaign: A Case Study for the Classroom. LAWFARE. https://www.lawfareblog.com/solarwinds-and-holiday-bear-campaign-case-study-classroom
• Chevron Says Hit by Stuxnet Virus in 2010. (2012, November 9). Phys.org. https://phys.org/news/2012-11-chevron-stuxnet-virus.html
• Chinese hackers target dozens of universities in a bid to steal maritime military secrets. (2019, March 6). Cyware Hacker News. https://cyware.com/news/chinese-hackers-target-dozens-of-universities-in-a-bid-to-steal-maritime-military-secrets-2e8f4fd9
• Cimpanu, C. (2018, December 12). Ships Infected with Ransomware, USB Malware, Worms. ZDNet. https://www.zdnet.com/article/ships-infected-with-ransomware-usb-malware-worms/
• Clavijo Mesa, M.V., Patino-Rodriguez, C.E., & Guevara Carazas, F.J. (2024, November). Cybersecurity at Sea: A Literature Review of Cyber-Attack Impacts and Defenses in Maritime Supply Chains. Information, 15(11), 710. DOI: 10.3390/info15110710
• Court Backs World Fuel Services Following $17M Bunker Theft. (2016, June 9). Ship & Bunker. https://shipandbunker.com/news/world/340232-court-backs-world-fuel-services-following-17-million-bunker-theft
• Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA). (2020, January 2). Alert (AA19-339A): Dridex Malware. U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). https://www.us-cert.gov/ncas/alerts/ aa19-339a
• Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA). (2020, January 23). Alert (TA18-201A): Emotet Malware. U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). https://www.us-cert.gov/ncas/alerts/TA18-201A
• Dapena, K., & Moriarty, D. (2021, March 31). America's Imports Are Stuck on Ships Floating Just Off Los Angeles. The Wall Street Journal. https://www.wsj.com/articles/americas-imports-are-stuck-on-ships-floating-just-off-los-angeles-11617183002
• DiDomenico, V.C., Klein, S.R., & Shin, K.H. (2023, May 10). Maritime Ransomware: Impacts and Incident Response. The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/maritime-ransomware-impacts-and-incident-response
• Dimakopoulou, A. & Rantos, K. (2024, May). Comprehensive Analysis of Maritime Cybersecurity Landscape Based on the NIST CSF v2.0. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 12(6), 919. DOI: 10.3390/jmse12060919
• Egozi, A. (2021, October 5). US Presses Israel On Haifa Port Amid China Espionage Concerns: Sources. Breaking Defense. https://breakingdefense.com/2021/10/us-presses-israel-on-haifa-port-amid-china-espionage-concerns-sources/
• Escobar, M.C. (2020, March 4). Carnival Corp. Announces Data Breach Affecting Two of its Cruise Lines. Hospitality Technology. https://hospitalitytech.com/carnival-corp-announces-data-breach-affecting-two-its-cruise-lines
• Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). (n.d.). Intellectual Property Theft/Piracy. FBI Web site. https://www.fbi.gov/investigate/white-collar-crime/piracy-ip-theft
• Field, M. (2018, October 11). WannaCry Cyber Attack Cost the NHS £92M as 19,000 Appointments Cancelled. The Telegraph. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2018/10/11/wannacry-cyber-attack-cost-nhs-92m-19000-appointments-cancelled/
• Garmin-owned Navigation Company Accidently Exposed Data of Thousands of Boat Owners. (2018, October 9). Cyware Hacker News. https://cyware.com/news/garmin-owned-navigation-company-accidentally-exposed-data-of-thousands-of-boat-owners-f4709e17
• Ghosh, A. (2017, May 16). WannaCry: List of Major Companies and Networks Hit by Ransomware Around the Globe. International Business Times. https://www.ibtimes.co.uk/wannacry-list-major-companies-networks-hit-by-deadly-ransomware-around-globe-1621587
• Greenberg, A. (2018, August 22). The Untold Story of NotPetya, the Most Devastating Cyberattack in History. WIRED. https://www.wired.com/story/notpetya-cyberattack-ukraine-russia-code-crashed-the-world/
• Greenberg, A. (2019). SANDWORM. New York: Doubleday.
• Hamill-Stewart, J., & Sallay, A. (ed.). (2022, December 19). Hackers Have Found a New Incentive to Target Shipping. The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/hackers-have-found-a-financial-incentive-to-target-shipping
• Hamill-Stewart, J., Mikhaylov, D., & Sallay, A. (ed.). (2023, May 7). Hackers Could Use ChatGPT to Infiltrate Vessels. The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/hackers-could-use-chatgpt-to-infiltrate-vessels
• Harrington, K. (2013, March 7). Malware Infects Gulf of Mexico Offshore Rigs. ChEnected. https://www.aiche.org/chenected/2013/03/malware-infects-gulf-mexico-offshore-rigs
• Herr, T., Loomis, W., Schroeder, E., Scott, S., Handler, S., & Zuo, T. (2021, March). Broken Trust: Lessons from Sunburst. Cyber Statecraft Initiative, Scowcroft Center for Strategy and Security, Atlantic Council. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/BROKEN-TRUST.pdf
• Hochfelder, B. (2018, April 30). Cyber Pirates: The Latest Threat to Ocean Shipping. Supply Chain Dive. https://www.supplychaindive.com/news/ocean-shipping-carriers-cyber-risk/522417/
• Holt, S.M. (2022, November 20). Cyber Pirates. The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/cyper-pirates
• Hsieh, L. (2015, September 8). Drilling Cybersecurity. Drilling Contractor. https://www.drillingcontractor.org/drilling-cybersecurity-36727
• International Maritime Organization (IMO). (n.d.). AIS Transponders. https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/Safety/Pages/AIS.aspx
• INTERTANKO. (2019). Jamming and Spoofing of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS). https://www.maritimeglobalsecurity.org/media/1043/2019-jamming-spoofing-of-gnss.pdf
• Jones, K.D., Tam, K., & Papadaki, M. (2016). Threat and Impacts in Maritime Cyber Security. Engineering & Technology Reference. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kevin_Jones62/publication/304263412_Threats_and_Impacts_in_Maritime _Cyber_Security/links/5a38e96caca272a6ec1f10a9/Threats-and-Impacts-in-Maritime-Cyber-Security.pdf
• Keller, J. (2019, March 13). U.S. Navy Under Cyber Attack From Chinese Hackers and Hemorrhaging National-Security Secrets. Military & Aerospace Electronics. https://www.militaryaerospace.com/articles/pt/2019/03/cyber-attack-navy-chinese-hackers.html
• Kovacs, E. (2018, July 26). Shipping Giant COSCO Hit by Ransomware. SecurityWeek. https://www.securityweek.com/shipping-giant-cosco-hit-ransomware
• Krebs, B. (2017, March 8). WikiLeaks Dumps Docs on CIA's Hacking Tools. Krebs on Security. https://krebsonsecurity.com/2017/03/wikileaks-dumps-docs-on-cias-hacking-tools/
• Kynge, J., Campbell, C., Kazmin, A., & Bokhari, F. (2017, January 12). How China Rules The Waves. Financial Times. https://ig.ft.com/sites/china-ports/
• Lazenby, H. (2015, February 2). Nautilus Minerals Falls Victim to Cyber Scam, Prepays $10M Into Wrong Account. Mining Weekly. http://www.miningweekly.com/article/nautilus-minerals-the-victim-of-a-cyber-scam-prepays-10m-to-wrong-account-2015-02-02
• Lillis, K.B., Bertrand, N., & Atwood, K. (2021, November 19). Construction Halted on Secret Project at Chinese Port in UAE After Pressure From US, Officials Say. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/19/politics/china-uae-us-construction-port/index.html
• Malaysian Bunker Company Loses More Than $1 Million in Email Scam. (2017, June 12). Asia/Pacific News. https://shipandbunker.com/news/apac/509648-malaysian-bunker-company-loses-more-than-1-million-in-email-scam
• MalwareTech. (2017, May 13). How to Accidently Stop a Global Cyber Attacks. MalwareTech Blog. https://www.malwaretech.com/2017/05/how-to-accidentally-stop-a-global-cyber-attacks.html
• May, P. & Holcova, P. (2023, November 7). Inside Job: How a Hacker Helped Cocaine Traffickers Infiltrate Europe's Biggest Ports. OCCRP. https://www.occrp.org/en/narcofiles-the-new-criminal-order/inside-job-how-a-hacker-helped-cocaine-traffickers-infiltrate-europes-biggest-ports
• Microsoft. (n.d.). Support for Windows XP Ended. https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/microsoft-365/windows/end-of-windows-xp-support
• Microsoft. (2017, March 14). Microsoft Security Bulletin MS17-010 - Critical: Security Update for Microsoft Windows SMB Server (4013389). https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/security-updates/SecurityBulletins/2017/ms17-010
• Microsoft. (2018, August 3). Trojan:Win32/EternalBlue. Microsoft Security Intelligence. https://www.microsoft.com/en-us/wdsi/threats/malware-encyclopedia-description?Name=Trojan:Win32/EternalBlue&ThreatID=-2147239042
• Mohsendokht, M., Li, H., Kontovas, C., Chang, C.-H., Qu, Z., & Yang, Z. (2024, November). Decoding Dependencies Among the Risk Factors Influencing Maritime Cybersecurity: Lessons Learned From Historical Incidents in the Past Two Decades. Ocean Engineering, 312(1), 119078. DOI: 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2024.119078
• Munro, K. (2018, January 9). Hacking Maritime IFTFCC Messaging for Invoice Fraud. Pen Test Partners. https://www.pentestpartners.com/security-blog/hacking-maritime-iftfcc-messaging-for-invoice-fraud/
• Newman, N. (2019, April 18). Cyber Pirates Terrorising the High Seas. Engineering and Technology. https://eandt.theiet.org/content/articles/2019/04/cyber-pirates-terrorising-the-high-seas/
• Olenick, D. (2018, October 9). Navionics' Misconfigured MongoDB Server Exposes 260,000 Records. SC Magazine. https://www.scmagazine.com/home/news/navionics-misconfigured-mongodb-server-exposes-260000-records/
• Palmer, D. (2017, August 16). Petya Ransomware: Cyberattack Costs Cold Hit $300M for Shipping Giant Maersk. ZDNet. http://www.zdnet.com/article/petya-ransomware-cyber-attack-costs-could-hit-300m-for-shipping-giant-maersk/
• Pham, S. (2018, March 23). How Much has the US Lost From China's IP Theft? CNN Business. https://money.cnn.com/2018/03/23/technology/china-us-trump-tariffs-ip-theft/index.html
• Pickrell, R. (2019, March 13). The US Navy and its Partners are 'Under Cyber Siege' From Chinese Hackers and are Hemorrhaging National-Security Secrets. Business Insider India. https://www.businessinsider.in/The-US-Navy-and-its-partners-are-under-cyber-siege-from-Chinese-hackers-and-are-hemorrhaging-national-security-secrets/articleshow/68383668.cms
• Rajamanickam, V. (2018, July 27). COSCO's Cyber Attack and the Importance of Maritime Cybersecurity. American Shipper. https://www.freightwaves.com/news/technology/coscos-cyber-attack-and-the-importance-of-maritime-cybersecurity
• Rohan, R. (2023, February 28). Identifying Commonalities of Cyberattacks Against the Maritime Transportation System. 18th International Conference on Cyber Warfare and Security, March 9-10, 2023. DOI: 10.34190/iccws.18.1.965
• Rüegamer, A., & Kowalewski, D. (2015). Jamming and Spoofing of GNSS Signals - An Underestimated Risk?! FIG Working Week 2015: From the Wisdom of the Ages to the Challenges of the Modern World, Sofia, Bulgaria, May 17-21, 2015. https://fig.net/resources/proceedings/fig_proceedings/fig2015/papers/ts05g/TS05G_ruegamer_kowalewski_7486.pdf
• Scimia, E. (2019, June 2). China-Operated Ports Raise Security Fears for US, NATO. Asia Times. https://www.asiatimes.com/2019/06/article/are-chinese-operated-ports-a-security-risk-for-us-nato/
• Scroxton, A. (2020, August 18). Carnival Cruise Lines Hit by Ransomware, Customer Data Stolen. ComputerWeekly.com. https://www.computerweekly.com/news/252487779/Carnival-cruise-lines-hit-by-ransomware-customer-data-stolen
• Shen, C., & Baker, J. (2020, September 28). CMA CGM Confirms Ransomware Attack. Lloyd's List Maritime Intelligence. https://lloydslist.maritimeintelligence.informa.com/LL1134044/CMA-CGM-confirms-ransomware-attack
• Simms, R. (2020, March 2). Cruise Line Hack Exposes Personal and Financial Data. Cruiseradio.net. https://cruiseradio.net/cruise-line-hack-exposes-personal-and-financial-data/
• Sonnemaker, T. (2020, August 3). Garmin Reportedly Paid Hackers a Multimillion Dollar Ransom to Recover Files After a Cyberattack That Left Their Services Offline for Several Days Last Month. Business Insider. https://www.businessinsider.com/garmin-paid-multimillion-dollar-ransom-to-hackers-report-2020-8
• Swinhoe, D. (2019, October 9). Rebuilding After NotPetya: How Maersk Moved Forward. CSO. https://www.csoonline.com/article/3444620/rebuilding-after-notpetya-how-maersk-moved-forward.html
• Targett, E. (2018, July 30). COSCO: Shipping Giant's IT Systems Recovered. Computer Business Review. https://www.cbronline.com/news/costco-online
• The Theft of Up to $600 Billion of American IP Annually Calls for a Decisive Response, Says IP Commission. (2018, March 8). The IP Commission. https://www.nbr.org/wp-content/uploads/pdfs/press_releases/ip_commission_press_release_030818.pdf
• Truong, K. (2020, July 28). The Garmin Ransomware Hack is Horrifying. Vice. https://www.vice.com/en_us/article/5dzkd5/the-garmin-ransomware-hack-is-horrifying
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2020, September 30). Malicious Email Spoofing Incidents. Marine Safety Information Bulletin (MSIB 19-20). https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/5p/MSIB/2020/USCG-MSIB-19-20-CYBER-SPOOFING.pdf
• Warren, T. (2017, May 31). Microsoft Issues "Highly Unusual" Windows XP Patch to Prevent Massive Ransomware Attack. The Verge. https://www.theverge.com/2017/5/13/15635006/microsoft-windows-xp-security-patch-wannacry-ransomware-attack
• Worthington, B. (2018, November 2). Explainers: Here's What You Need to Know About the Austal Cyber Attack and Extortion Attempt. ABC News. https://www.abc.net.au/news/2018-11-02/austal-ship-cyber-attack-and-extortion-attempt-national-security/10458982
• Zetter, K. (2014). Countdown to Zero Day: Stuxnet and the Launch of the World's First Digital Weapon. New York: Crown.
• Zorabedian, J. (2016, March 7). Pirates Hacked Shipping Company to Steal Infor for Efficient Hijackings. Naked Security. https://nakedsecurity.sophos.com/2016/03/07/pirates-hacked-shipping-company-to-steal-info-for-efficient-hijackings/

[Top of Section | Top of Page]
Chapter 4. Ports and Cybersecurity

• Achten, N. (2019, September 30). New U.N. Debate on Cybersecurity in the Context of International Security. Lawfare Blog. https://www.lawfareblog.com/new-un-debate-cybersecurity-context-international-security
• Atkinson, H. (2022, July 28). Why Suppliers Must Be Part of Cyber-Risk Strategy. SupplyChainBrain. https://www.supplychainbrain.com/articles/35394-your-suppliers-need-to-be-part-of-your-cyber-risk-strategy
• Baker, R. (2020, November 30). Maritime OSINT: Port Analysis. wondersmith_rae blog. https://wondersmithrae.medium.com/maritime-osint-port-analysis-d09b4531728d
• Barnes, P., & Oloruntoba, R. (2005). Assurance of Security in Maritime Supply Chains: Conceptual Issues of Vulnerability and Crisis Management. Journal of International Management, 11(4), 519-540. DOI: 10.1016/j.intman.2005.09.008
• Barrett, R. (2022, July 13). How America's Ports Defend Against Cyberthreats. StateTech. https://statetechmagazine.com/article/2022/07/how-americas-ports-defend-against-cyberthreats
• Bielby, K. (2023, April 15). Port of Seattle's Weak Controls Led to Phishing Attacks, State Auditor Says. Homeland Security Today. https://www.hstoday.us/subject-matter-areas/transportation/port-of-seattles-weak-controls-led-to-phishing-attacks-state-auditor-says/
• Boyens, J., Paulsen, C., Moorthy, R., & Bartol, N. (2015, April). Supply Chain Risk Management Practices for Federal Information Systems and Organizations. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Special Publication (SP) 800-161, U.S. Department of Commerce. DOI: 10.6028/NIST.SP.800-161
• Brigham, L. (2021, May). The Suez Canal and Global Trade Routes. Proceedings of the U.S. Naval Institute, 147(5). https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2021/may/suez-canal-and-global-trade-routes
• Chambers, S. (2018, November 29). Iranians Behind San Diego Port Ransomware Attack. Splash247.com. https://splash247.com/iranians-behind-san-diego-port-ransomware-attack/
• Cimpanu, C. (2018, September 27). Port of San Diego Suffers Cyber-Attack, Second Port in a Week After Barcelona. ZDNet. https://www.zdnet.com/article/port-of-san-diego-suffers-cyber-attack-second-port-in-a-week-after-barcelona/
• Corrigan, J. (2019, February 20). Supply Chain Attacks Spiked 78 Percent in 2018, Cyber Researchers Found. Nextgov. https://www.nextgov.com/cybersecurity/2019/02/supply-chain-attacks-spiked-78-percent-2018-cyber-researchers-found/154996/
• Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA). (2018, March 16). Russian Government Cyber Activity Targeting Energy and Other Critical Infrastructure Sectors. National Cyber Awareness System Alert, TA18-074A. U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). https://www.us-cert.gov/ncas/alerts/TA18-074A
• Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA). (2020, February). Port Facility Cybersecurity Risks. U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). https://www.cisa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/port-facility-cybersecurity-risks-infographic_508.pdf
• Daffron, J., Ruffle, S., Coburn, A., Quantrill, K., Strong, K., & Leverett, E. (2019). Shen Attack: Cyber Risk in Asia Pacific Ports. Cambridge Centre for Risk Studies. https://assets.lloyds.com/assets/pdf-cyrim-shen-attack-final-report/1/pdf-cyrim-shen-attack-final-report.pdf
• DOT Launches New Marine Highway Module of Port Planning and Investment Toolkit. (2020, October 15). Homeland Security Today. https://www.hstoday.us/subject-matter-areas/transportation/dot-launches-new-marine-highway-module-of-port-planning-and-investment-toolkit/
• Drougkas, A., Sarri, A., Kyranoudi, P. (2020, December). CYBER RISK MANAGEMENT FOR PORTS: Guidelines for Cybersecurity in the Maritime Sector. ENISA. https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/guidelines-cyber-risk-management-for-ports/at_download/fullReport
• Drougkas, A., Sarri, A., Kyranoudi, P., & Zisi, A. (2019, November). Port Cybersecurity. European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA). https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/port-cybersecurity-good-practices-for-cybersecurity-in-the-maritime-sector/at_download/fullReport
• Eichenhofer, J.O., Heymann, E., Miller, B.P., & Kang, A. (2020, July 10). An In-Depth Security Assessment of Maritime Container Terminal Software Systems. IEEE Access, 8, 128050-128067. DOI: 10.1109/ACCESS.2020.3008395
• Elkins, L. (2019, November 5). The 6th Warfighting Domain. Over The Horizon. https://othjournal.com/2019/11/05/the-6th-warfighting-domain/
• Esage, A. (2018, September 26). Hacking Attack in Port of Barcelona. Information Security Newspaper. https://www.securitynewspaper.com/2018/09/26/hacking-attack-in-port-of-barcelona/
• Fredrickson, K. (2021, May 9). Marine Transportation System (MTS) Cyber Spotlight: Approaching Deadlines for Incorporating Cyber Into Facility Security Assessments (FSA) and Facility Security Plans (FSP). Coast Guard Maritime Commons. https://mariners.coastguard.blog/2021/05/09/marine-transportation-system-mts-cyber-spotlight/
• Hale, Z. (2018, March 13). Port of Longview Hit With Major Cyberattack. The Daily News. http://tdn.com/news/local/port-of-longview-hit-with-major-cyberattack/article_25102b63-d897-5cfd-b16b-ffec70545d1d.html
• International Association of Ports and Harbors (IAPH). (2021, July 2). Cybersecurity Guidelines for Ports and Port Facilities, v 1.0. https://sustainableworldports.org/wp-content/uploads/IAPH-Cybersecurity-Guidelines-version-1_0.pdf
• Holt, S.M. (2021, December 12). Is the Global Supply Chain the Next Big Cyber Target? The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/magazine/is-the-global-supply-chain-the-next-big-cyber-target
• Iran: One of 2 Cyberattack Targets was Country's Ports. (2020, October 16). Asharq Al-Awsat. https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/2567991/iran-one-2-cyberattack-targets-was-countrys-ports
• ISRAEL: Water Command and Control Infrastructure Came Under Cyber-Attack. (2020, May 10). SyriacPress. https://syriacpress.com/blog/2020/05/10/israel-israeli-water-infrastructure-came-cyber-attacked/
• Joffre, T. (2020, May 11). Cyber Attack Targets Iranian Port Near Strait of Hormuz. The Jerusalem Post. https://www.jpost.com/breaking-news/cyber-attack-targets-iranian-port-near-strait-of-hormuz-627616
• Kim, N., Herr, T., & Schneier, B. (2020, June). The Reverse Cascade: Enforcing Security on the Global IoT Supply Chain. Cyber Statecraft Initiative, Scowcroft Center for Strategy and Security, Atlantic Council. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/06/Reverse-Cascade-Report-web.pdf
• Kochetkova, K. (2015, May 22). Maritime Industry is Easy Meat For Cyber Criminals. Kaspersky Daily. https://www.kaspersky.com/blog/maritime-cyber-security/8796/
• Konrad, J. (2022, July 24). Port Of LA Calls FBI After Cyber Attacks Double. gCaptain. https://gcaptain.com/port-of-la-calls-fbi-after-cyber-attacks-double/
• Kovacs, E. (2018, September 28). Port of San Diego Hit by Ransomware. SecurityWeek. https://www.securityweek.com/port-san-diego-hit-ransomware
• Kuhn, K., Kipkech, J., & Shaikh, S. (2021, June). Maritime Ports and Cybersecurity. In M. Fiorini & N. Gupta (eds.), ICT Solutions and Digitalisation in Ports and Shipping, Institution of Engineering and Technology, Chap. 2, pp. 37-68. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kristen-Kuhn-3/publication/353218415_Maritime_ports_and_cybersecurity/links/621f73d439529602315b02cd/Maritime-ports-and-cybersecurity.pdf
• Lampert, E. (2019, March 14). Port Security is so Much More Than Guns, Gates, and Guards. Riviera. https://www.rivieramm.com/news-content-hub/news-content-hub/port-security-is-so-much-more-than-guns-gates-and-guards-54177
• Liu, H., Tian, Z., Huang, A., & Yang, Z. (2018, January). Analysis of Vulnerabilities in Maritime Supply Chains. Reliability Engineering & System Safety, 169, 475-484. DOI: 10.1016/j.ress.2017.09.018
• Loock, J. (2019, May 23). Singapore Opens Maritime Cybersecurity Operations Centre (MSOC). Maritime Security Review. http://www.marsecreview.com/2019/05/singapore-opens-maritime-cybersecurity-operations-centre-msoc/
• Maritime & Port Security Information Sharing & Analysis Organization (MPS-ISAO). (2017, September 27). W2 Social Engineering Incident Affecting U.S. Port. Tactical Intelligence Cyber Report TR-127-2017.
• Maritime & Port Security Information Sharing & Analysis Organization (MPS-ISAO). (2018, February 20). Imposter Phone Lure. Warning Report MPS-2018-002.
• Maritime & Port Security Information Sharing & Analysis Organization (MPS-ISAO). (2018, June 8). Successful Phish Leads to Secondary Attacks. Warning Report WR-18-0013.
• McNicholas, M.A. (Ed.) (2016). Maritime Security: An Introduction, 2/e. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
• Mims, C. (2021). Arriving Today: From Factory to Front Door — Why Everything Has Changed About How and What We Buy. New York: Harper Business.
• Moara-Nkwe, K., Tam, K., Hopcraft, R., & Jones, K. (2022, August). Simulation Modelling of Maritime Port Operations: Analysing the Impacts of Disruptions on Ports. Maritime Cyber Threats Research Group, University Of Plymouth. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362518077_Simulation_Modelling_of_Maritime_Port_Operations_Analysing_the_Impacts_of_Disruptions_on_Ports
• Mongelluzzo, B. (2019, April 26). Port of LA Enlists Industry to Fend Off Cyber Threats. Joc.com. https://www.joc.com/port-news/us-ports/port-los-angeles/port-la-enlists-industry-fend-cyber-threats_20190426.html
• Munro, K. (2018, September 21). Container Theft, the Legal System, and Poor Maritime Security. Pen Test Partners. https://www.pentestpartners.com/security-blog/container-theft-the-legal-system-and-poor-maritime-security/
• Nicaise, V. (2022, September 1). Cybermarétique: A Short History of Cyberattacks Against Ports. Stormshield. https://www.stormshield.com/news/cybermaretique-a-short-history-of-cyberattacks-against-ports/
• Pasternack, A. (2013, October 21). To Move Drugs, Traffickers Are Hacking Shipping Containers. Motherboard. https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/bmjgk8/how-traffickers-hack-shipping-containers-to-move-drugs
• Petta, M.C. (2021, September 29). Port Cybersecurity: Incorporating the IAPH's New Guidelines into the ISPS Code. Center for International Maritime Security (CIMSEC. https://cimsec.org/incorporating-the-iaphs-new-cybersecurity-guidelines-into-the-international-ship-and-port-facility-security-code/
• Polemi, N. (2018). Port Cybersecurity: Securing Critical Information Infrastructures and Supply Chains. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
• Port Technology International Team. (2022, January 25). Port of Los Angeles Launches Cyber Resilience Center. Port Technology. https://www.porttechnology.org/news/port-of-los-angeles-launches-cyber-resilience-center/
• Rowsell, J. (2021, August 3). Supply Chain Cyber Attacks to 'Quadruple.' Supply Management. https://www.cips.org/supply-management/news/2021/august/supply-chain-cyber-attacks-to-quadruple/
• Ross, J.A.J., Walker, D.J., Tam, K., & Jones, K.D. (2022, June 1). Towards a Digital Twin of a Complex Maritime Site for Multi-Objective Optimization. University of Plymouth Pedagogic Research and Development Database. http://hdl.handle.net/10026.1/19279
• Scully, B.M., & Chambers, K.F. (2019, Septeber 12). Measuring Port Disruptions with Automatic Identification System Data. In P. Jain & W.S. Stahlman III (eds.), Ports 2019: Port Planning and Development, Reston, VA: American Society of Civil Engineers, pp. 311-321. DOI: 10.1061/9780784482629.030
• Senarak, C. (2023, December 6). Port Ccyberattacks From 2011 to 2023: A Literature Review and Discussion of Selected Cases. Maritime Economics & Logistics, 26, 105–130. DOI: 10.1057/s41278-023-00276-8
• Tam, K., Hopcraft, R., Moara-Nkwe, K., Misas, J.P., Andrews, W., Harish, A.V., Giménez, P, Crichton, T., & Jones, K. (2021, December 6). Case Study of a Cyber-Physical Attack Affecting Port and Ship Operational Safety. Journal of Transportation Technologies, 12(1), 1-27. DOI: 10.4236/jtts.2022.121001
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (n.d.). U.S. Coast Guard Maritime Security (MARSEC) Levels. https://www.uscg.mil/What-Is-MARSEC/
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2023, January). Maritime Cybersecurity Assessment and Annex Guide (MCAAG). USCG Office of Port & Facility Compliance - Cybersecurity and USCG Cyber Command - Maritime Cyber Readiness Branch. https://dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/CG-FAC/Documents/Maritime%20Cyber%20Assessment%20%20Annex%20Guide%20(MCAAG)_released%2023JAN2023.pdf?ver=NE11YUspj_kNa3xRoMd0TQ%3d%3d
• Warrick, J., & Nakashima, E. (2020, May 18). Officials: Israel Linked to a Disruptive Cyberattack on Iranian Port Facility. The Washington Post. https://www.washingtonpost.com/national-security/officials-israel-linked-to-a-disruptive-cyberattack-on-iranian-port-facility/2020/05/18/9d1da866-9942-11ea-89fd-28fb313d1886_story.html
• Watkins, E. (2019, April 26). Port of Los Angeles Moves to Counter Maritime Cyber Crime. Lloyd's List. https://lloydslist.maritimeintelligence.informa.com/LL1127221/Port-of-Los-Angeles-moves-to-counter-maritime-cyber-crime
• Wingrove, M. (2020, November 23). Cyber Attack Shuts Down US Port Servers. https://www.rivieramm.com/news-content-hub/news-content-hub/cyber-attack-shuts-down-us-port-servers-61955
• Xin, L. (2023). A Ship Network Security Assessment Model. 2023 2nd Asia Conference on Electrical, Power and Computer Engineering (EPCE), Xiamen, China, April 22-24, 2023, pp. 23-27. DOI: 10.1109/EPCE58798.2023.00013
• Young, D.L., Scully, B.M., & Chambers, K.F. (2022, March 16). Resilience-Focused Analysis of the United States Maritime Transportation System Using Automatic Identification System Data. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2676(7), 726-742. DOI: 10.1177/03611981221082561

[Top of Section | Top of Page]
Chapter 5. Shipboard Communication Systems

• Atlas Obscura. (n.d.). The Zenobia Shipwreck. https://www.atlasobscura.com/places/the-zenobia-shipwreck-larnaca-cyprus
• Bacon, J. (2019, September 9.) Four Missing After Ship Capsizes, Burns Near Georgia Coast. USA Today. https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2019/09/08/four-missing-after-ship-capsizes-burns-near-georgia-coast/2255568001/
• Caprolu, M., Di Pietro, R., Raponi, S., Sciancalepore, S, & Tedeschi, P. (2020, June). Vessels Cybersecurity: Issues, Challenges, and the Road Ahead. IEEE Communications Magazine, 58(6), 90-96. DOI: 10.1109/MCOM.001.1900632
• CERT Coordination Center (CERT/CC). (2018, October 16). Auto-Maskin DCU 210E RP 210E and Marine Pro Observer App. Vulnerability Note VU#176301. Carnegie Mellon University, Software Engineering Institute. https://www.kb.cert.org/vuls/id/176301/
• Chowdhury, S. (2016, January 20). Italian Marines Case: Two Killings at Sea, An International Legal Battle. The Indian Express. https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/simply-put-2-killings-at-sea-an-international-legal-battle/
• Clifton, P. (2016, March 17). Hoegh Osaka Ship Was 'Unstable' When it Left Southampton Port. BBC. https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-hampshire-35823182
• Cyber Pirates Prowling Ship Controls Threaten Another Big Shock. (2022, July 11). SupplyChainBrain. https://www.supplychainbrain.com/articles/35287-cyber-pirates-prowling-ship-controls-threaten-another-big-shock
• Degnarain, N. (2020, November 6). Captain's Noon Reports Crucial Missing Evidence For Mauritius Oil Spill Ship. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/nishandegnarain/2020/11/06/captains-noon-reports-crucial-missing-evidence-for-mauritius-oil-spill-ship/?sh=16f204841a67
• Dewey, C.M. (2016, December 19). Pentesting Cruise Ships OR Hacking the High Seas [video]. Hackfest HF. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-LmM43dz7vo
• Fantasia & Fiesta. (n.d.). Forgotten Sister: The Zenobia Story. http://www.hhvferry.com/zenobia.html
• Franceschi-Bicchierai, L. (2015, December 9). Pirate Hackers Can Easily Spy on Ships Through Insecure 'Black Boxes.' Motherboard. https://motherboard.vice.com/en_us/article/53dzn5/pirate-hackers-can-easily-spy-on-ships-through-insecure-black-boxes
• Goodin, D. (2020, August 5). Insecure Satellite Internet is Threatening Ship and Plane Safety. Ars Technica. https://arstechnica.com/information-technology/2020/08/insecure-satellite-internet-is-threatening-ship-and-plane-safety/
• Hamill-Stewart, J., & Sallay, A. (ed.). (2023, May 23). VSAT Connectivity Comes With Cybersecurity Threats to Vessels. The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/vsat-connectivity-comes-with-cybersecurity-threats-to-vessels
• Hamilton, M.K. (2019). 4 Tips for Cruise Ship Cybersecurity. Critical Insight. https://www.criticalinsight.com/resources/news/article/4-tips-for-cruise-ship-cybersecurity
• Harish, A.V., Tam, K., & Jones, K. (2022, November). Investigating the Security and Accessibility of Voyage Data Recorder Data Using a USB Attack. CYBER 2022: The Seventh International Conference on Cyber-Technologies and Cyber-Systems. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Kimberly-Tam/publication/365365607_Investigating_the_Security_and_Accessibility_of_Voyage_Data_Recorder_Data_using_a_USB_attack/links/6372430154eb5f547cd13623/Investigating-the-Security-and-Accessibility-of-Voyage-Data-Recorder-Data-using-a-USB-attack.pdf
• Hopcraft, R., Harish, A.V., Tam, K., & Jones, K. (2023, January 24). Raising the Standard of Maritime Voyage Data Recorder Security. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 11(2), 267. DOI: 10.3390/jmse11020267
• Iran's Secret Cyber Files On How Cargo Ships and Petrol Stations Could Be Attacked. (2021, July 27). IFMAT. https://www.ifmat.org/07/27/irans-secret-cyber-files-on-how-cargo-ships-and-petrol-stations-could-be-attacked/
• Jackson, G. (2019, October 3). Pilot Praised For Decision to Ground Golden Ray. The Brunswick News. https://thebrunswicknews.com/news/local_news/pilot-praised-for-decision-to-ground-golden-ray/article_9bb34ae1-eae5-5dd4-a08d-6feeccc1d05b.html
• Jeon, D.K., & Lee, Y. (2014). A ship area network with WiMedia wireless gateway applying a cooperative transmission. Contemporary Engineering Sciences, 7(23), 1235-1243. DOI: 10.12988/ces.2014.49153
• Jo, Y., Choi, O., You, J., Cha, Y., & Lee, D.H. (2022, February 26). Cyberattack Models for Ship Equipment based on the MITRE ATT&CK Framework. Sensors, 22(5), 1860. DOI: 10.3390/s22051860
• Kang, J., Moon, D., & Kim, J. (2014, January 9). Building Communication Interface in Ship Area Network for Merchant Marine: A Practical Approach. 2013 13th International Conference on Control, Automation and Systems (ICCAS 2013), October 20-23, 2013. DOI: 10.1109/ICCAS.2013.6704107
• Kayisoglu, G., Bolat, P., & Tam, K. (2023, December 15). A Novel Application of the CORAS Framework for Ensuring Cyber Hygiene on Shipboard RADAR. Journal of Marine Engineering & Technology. DOI: 10.1080/20464177.2023.2292782
• Kessler, G.C. (2021, September). The CAN Bus in the Maritime Environment - Technical Overview and Cybersecurity Vulnerabilities. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 15(3), 531-540. DOI: 10.12716/1001.15.03.05
• Krile, S., Kezić, D., & Dimc, F. (2013). NMEA Communication Standard for Shipboard Data Architecture. OUR SEA: International Journal of Maritime Science & Technology, 60(3-4), 68–81. https://hrcak.srce.hr/file/162159
• Leyden, J. (2017, November 20). Container Ship Loading Plans Are 'Easily Hackable.' The Register. https://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/11/20/container_ship_loading_software_mischief/
• Luft, L.A., Anderson, L., & Cassidy, F. (2002). NMEA 2000 A Digital Interface for the 21st Century. 2002 National Technical Meeting of The Institute of Navigation, San Diego, California, January 28–30, 2002, pp. 796–807. https://www.nmea.org/Assets/nmea-2000-digital-interface-white-paper.pdf
• Maritime & Port Security Information Sharing & Analysis Organization (MPS-ISAO). (2017, September 29). Vessel Video Camera Hack Update. Tactical Cyber Intelligence Report TR-130-2017.
• Maritime & Port Security Information Sharing & Analysis Organization (MPS-ISAO). (2017, October 20). VSAT and "x0rz." Tactical Intelligence Report TR-131-2017.
• Maritime & Port Security Information Sharing & Analysis Organization (MPS-ISAO). (2018, October 12). Social Media Claim — Vessel Camera Hack. Warning Report WR-18-10-07.
• McGarry, C., Clay, A., & Sage-Passant, L. (host). (2022, October 13). How to get on a Watchlist Episode 7: How to Hijack a Ship [Podcast]. Encyclopedia Geopolitica. https://encyclopediageopolitica.com/2022/10/13/how-to-get-on-a-watchlist-episode-7-how-to-hijack-a-ship/
• McNally, M. (2022, February 23). Cybersecurity for the Increasingly Connected Ship. The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/cybersecurity-for-the-increasingly-connected-ship
• Mehta, J., Richard, G., Lugosch, L., Yu, D., & Meyer, B.H. (2023, January). DT-DS: CAN Intrusion Detection with Decision Tree Ensembles. ACM Transactions on Cyber-Physical Systems. DOI: 10.1145/3566132
• Munro, K. (2017, October 13). OSINT From Ship Satcoms. Pen Test Partners. https://www.pentestpartners.com/security-blog/osint-from-ship-satcoms/
• Munro, K. (2017, November 16). Sinking Container Ships by Hacking Load Plan Software. Pen Test Partner. https://www.pentestpartners.com/security-blog/sinking-container-ships-by-hacking-load-plan-software/
• Munro, K. (2017, November 17). Making Prawn Espressos, or Hacking Ships by Deciphering BAPLIE EDIFACT Messaging. Pen Test Partners. https://www.pentestpartners.com/security-blog/making-prawn-espressos-or-hacking-ships-by-deciphering-baplie-edifact-messaging/
• Munro, K. (2017, December 13). Sinking Bulk Carrier Ships by Hacking HSMS. Pen Test Partners. https://www.pentestpartners.com/security-blog/sinking-bulk-carrier-ships-by-hacking-hsms/
• Munro, K. (2018, June 25). Hacking Serial Networks on Ships. Pen Test Partners. https://www.pentestpartners.com/security-blog/hacking-serial-networks-on-ships/
• National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). (2014, July 14). CVE-2013-6117-Detail. National Vulnerability Database. https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2013-6117
• National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). (2019, October 2). CVE-2017-6343-Detail. National Vulnerability Database. https://nvd.nist.gov/vuln/detail/CVE-2017-6343
• National Security Agency (NSA). (2022, January 25). Protecting VSAT Communications. Cybersecurity Advisory (CSA). https://media.defense.gov/2022/Jan/25/2002927101/-1/-1/0/CSA_PROTECTING_VSAT_COMMUNICATIONS_01252022.PDF
• Nichols, S. (2016, April 11). Half of People Plug in USB Drives They Find in the Parking Lot. The Register. https://www.theregister.com/2016/04/11/half_plug_in_found_drives/
• Osborne, C. (2017, October 26). Hackers Can Gain Access to Maritime Ship Data Through a Built-In Backdoor. ZDNet. https://www.zdnet.com/article/hackers-gain-full-access-to-maritime-ships/
• Oslund, M. (2023, September/October). Standards Update: How Vulnerable is NMEA 2000 to Cyberattacks? Marine Electronics Journal, 33(5), 12, 50. https://www.marineelectronicsjournal-digital.com/marineelectronicsjournal/september_october_2023
• Pavur, J., Mosery, D., Strohmeiery, M., Lendersy, V., & Martinovic, I. (2020, May). A Tale of Sea and Sky On the Security of Maritime VSAT Communications. 2020 IEEE Symposium on Security and Privacy (SP), San Francisco, May 18-21, 2020. DOI: 10.1109/SP40000.2020.00056
• Ramsay, S. (2014). Maritime Domain Awareness and Security Imperatives. SP's Naval Forces, 4. http://www.spsnavalforces.com/story/?id=336
• Rinner, B. (2019, May). Can We Trust Smart Cameras? IEEE Computer Magazine, 52(5): 67-70. 10.1109/MC.2019.2905171
• Robinson, E. (2020, May 29). We Hacked A Ship. The Owner is Liable. Digital Ship. https://thedigitalship.com/news/maritime-satellite-communications/item/6597-we-hacked-a-ship-the-owner-is-liable
• Rødseth, Ø.J. (2023, September). Onboard Maritime ICT Architecture and Standards Intelligent Ship Transport System. Intelligent Ship Transport System (ISTS) Report R3.1, V1.2 – 2023-09-16. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.15434.34246
• Santamarta, R. (2014). A Wake-Up Call For SATCOM Security. IOActive Technical White Paper. https://ioactive.com/pdfs/IOActive_SATCOM_Security_WhitePaper.pdf
• Santamarta, R. (2015, December 9). Maritime Security: Hacking Into a Voyage Data Recorder (VDR). IOActive Research Paper. https://ioactive.com/maritime-security-hacking-into-a-voyage-data-recorder-vdr/
• Santamarta, R. (2018, August). Last Call For SATCOM Security. IOActive White Paper. http://i.blackhat.com/us-18/Thu-August-9/us-18-Santamarta-Last-Call-For-Satcom-Security-wp.pdf
• Schnelle O. (1995). CAN Networks in Ship Automation Systems. 2nd International CAN Conference (ICC 1995), London. https://www.can-cia.org/fileadmin/resources/documents/proceedings/1995_schnelle.pdf
• Seals, T. (2019, October 15). On-Board 'Mystery Boxes' Threaten Global Shipping Vessels. Threatpost. https://threatpost.com/on-board-mystery-boxes-threaten-global-shipping-vessels/149211/
• Several Wounded After Cargo Ship Capsizes in Southern Iran. (2019, March 19). Iran Front Page. https://ifpnews.com/several-wounded-after-cargo-ship-capsizes-in-southern-iran
• Söner, Ö., Kayisoglu, G., Bolat, P., & Tam., K. (2023, January). Cybersecurity Risk Assessment of VDR. The Journal of Navigation. DOI: 10.1017/S0373463322000595
• Talamantes, J. (n.d.). USB Drop Attacks: The Danger of "Lost and Found" Thumb Drives. RedTeam. https://www.redteamsecure.com/blog/usb-drop-attacks-the-danger-of-lost-and-found-thumb-drives/
• Tests Show Ease of Hacking ECDIS, Radar and Machinery. (2017, December 21). The Maritime Executive. https://maritime-executive.com/article/tests-show-ease-of-hacking-ecdis-radar-and-machinery
• Tran, K., Keene, S., Fretheim, E., & Tsikerdekis, M. (2021, April 21). Marine Network Protocols and Security Risks. Journal of Cybersecurity and Privacy, 2021(1), 239-251. DOI: 10.3390/jcp1020013
• Tucker, P. (2015, August 6). Hacker Cracks Satellite Communications Network. Defense One. http://www.defenseone.com/technology/2015/08/hacker-cracks-satellite-communications-network/118915/
• United Nations Directories for Electronic Data Interchange for Administration, Commerce and Transport (UN/EDIFACT). (2021, November 15). Bayplan/Stowage Plan Occupied and Empty Locations Message (BAPLIE), Version D, Release 21B. https://service.unece.org/trade/untdid/latest/trmd/baplie_c.htm
• United Nations Directories for Electronic Data Interchange for Administration, Commerce and Transport (UN/EDIFACT). (2021, November 15). Container Gate-In/Gate-Out Report Message (CODECO), Version D, Release 21B. https://service.unece.org/trade/untdid/latest/trmd/codeco_c.htm
• United Nations Directories for Electronic Data Interchange for Administration, Commerce and Transport (UN/EDIFACT). (2021, November 15). Container Discharge/Loading Order Message (COPRAR), Version D, Release 21B. https://service.unece.org/trade/untdid/latest/trmd/coprar_c.htm
• United Nations Directories for Electronic Data Interchange for Administration, Commerce and Transport (UN/EDIFACT). (2021, November 15). Verified Gross Mass Message (VERMAS), Version D, Release 21B. https://service.unece.org/trade/untdid/latest/trmd/vermas_c.htm
• USB Rubber Ducky. (n.d.). Hak5. http://hakshop.myshopify.com/collections/usb-rubber-ducky
• Wee, V. (2017, December 22). Naval Dome Exposes Vessel Vulnerabilities to Cyber Attack. Seatrade Maritime News. https://www.seatrade-maritime.com/asia/naval-dome-exposes-vessel-vulnerabilities-cyber-attack
• Wolsing, K., Saillard, A., Bauer, J., Wagner, E., van Sloun, C., Fink, I.B., Schmidt, M., Wehrle, K., & Henze, M. (2022, September). Network Attacks Against Marine Radar Systems: A Taxonomy, Simulation Environment, and Dataset. IEEE 47th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Edmonton, Alberta, Canada. DOI: 10.1109/LCN53696.2022.9843801
• Zorz, Z. (2017, October 26). Critical Flaws in Maritime Comms System Could Endanger Entire Ships. Help Net Security. https://www.helpnetsecurity.com/2017/10/26/critical-flaws-maritime-comms-system/
• Zorz, Z. (2018, June 7). Vulnerable Ship Systems: Many Left Exposed to Hacking. Help Net Security. https://www.helpnetsecurity.com/2018/06/07/vulnerable-ship-systems/

[Top of Section | Top of Page]
Chapter 6. Navigation Systems

• AIS BlackToolkit. (2020, May 11). https://github.com/trendmicro/ais
• Aitken, P. (2020, August 8). Chinese Fleet Fishing Near Galapagos Protected Waters, Allegedly Falsifying GPS Location. Fox News. https://www.foxnews.com/world/chinese-fleet-fishing-near-galapagos-protected-waters-allegedly-falsifying-gps-location
• Akarca, O. (2019, May 24). The World's Top 10 Strategic Straits and Channels. More Than Shipping. https://www.morethanshipping.com/the-worlds-top-10-strategic-straits-and-channels/
• Amro, A., & Gkioulos, V. (2022, September). From Click To Sink: Utilizing AIS for Command and Control in Maritime Cyber Attacks. 27th European Symposium on Research in Computer Security (ESORICS) 2022, Copenhagen, Denmark, pp. 535-553. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS), 13556. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-17143-7_26 [[ VIDEO ]]
• Amro, A., Oruç, A., Gkioulos, V., & Katsikas, S. (2022, February 23). Navigation Data Anomaly Analysis and Detection. Information, 13(3), 104. DOI: 10.3390/info13030104
• Anderson, J.M., Carroll, K.L., DeVilbiss, N.P., Gillis, J.T., Hinks, J.C., O'Hanlon, B.W., Rushanan, J.J., Scott, L., & Yazdi, R.A. (2017, September). Chips-Message Robust Authentication (Chimera) for GPS Civilian Signals. 30th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2017), Portland, Oregon, pp. 2388-2416. DOI: 10.33012/2017.15206
• Armenzoni, A., Pili, G., & Kessler, G.C. (2024, June 5). Mass AIS Spoofing Event "Moves" Dozens of Ships to Crimean Airport. The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/mass-ais-spoofing-event-moves-dozens-of-ships-to-crimean-airport
• Armenzoni, A., Pili, G., & Kessler, G.C. (2024, June 13). Red Flags: Russian Oil Tradecraft in the Mediterranean Sea. Proceedings of the U.S. Naval Institute, 150(6), 1456. https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2024/june/red-flags-russian-oil-tradecraft-mediterranean-sea
• Automatic Identification System (AIS), 33 C.F.R. § 164.46 (2020). https://www.govregs.com/regulations/33/164.46
• Awan, M.S.K., & Al Ghamdi, M.A. (2019, October 2). Understanding the Vulnerabilities in Digital Components of An Integrated Bridge System (IBS). Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 7(10), 350. DOI: 10.3390/jmse7100350
• Baker, R. (2019, October 2). OSINT on the Ocean: Maritime Intelligence Gathering Techniques. wondersmith_rae blog. https://wondersmithrae.medium.com/osint-on-the-ocean-maritime-intelligence-gathering-techniques-2ee39e554fe1
• Baker, R. (2021, April 12). 6 Tips For Investigating Maritime Vessels. wondersmith_rae blog. https://wondersmithrae.medium.com/6-tips-for-investigating-maritime-vessels-77e9c8bf75
• Balduzzi, M., Pasta, A., & Wilhoit, K. (2014, December). A Security Evaluation of AIS Automated Identification System. 30th Annual Computer Security Applications Conference (ACSAC '14), New Orleans, Louisiana, December 8-12, 2014, pp. 436-445. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.694.7968&type=pdf
• Balduzzi, M., Wilhoit, K., & Pasta, A. (2014, December). A Security Evaluation of AIS. Trend Micro Research Paper. https://www.trendmicro.com/cloud-content/us/pdfs/security-intelligence/white-papers/wp-a-security-evaluation-of-ais.pdf
• Bergman, B. (2019, December 12). Systematic GPS Manipulation Occuring at Chinese Oil Terminals and Government Installations. SkyTruth. https://skytruth.org/2019/12/systematic-gps-manipulation-occuring-at-chinese-oil-terminals-and-government-installations/
• Bergman, B. (2020, May 26). AIS Ship Tracking Data Shows False Vessel Tracks Circling Above Point Reyes, Near San Francisco. SkyTruth. https://skytruth.org/2020/05/ais-ship-tracking-data-shows-false-vessel-tracks-circling-above-point-reyes-near-san-francisco/
• Bergman, B. (2021, July 29). Systematic Data Analysis Reveals False Vessel Tracks. Global Fishing Watch. https://globalfishingwatch.org/data/analysis-reveals-false-vessel-tracks/
• Berkowitz, M.J. (2024, July 18).America's Asymmetric Vulnerability to Navigation Warfare: Leadership and Strategic Direction Needed to Mitigate Significant Threats. National Security Space Association. https://rntfnd.us3.list-manage.com/track/click?u=06a79dfa9d702640cd0cee682&id=78f635e918&e=45ff616045
• Bhatti, J., & Humphreys, T.E. (2017, May 7. Hostile Control of Ships via False GPS Signals: Demonstration and Detection. NAVIGATION: Journal of the Institute of Navigation, 64(1), 51-66. DOI: 10.1002/navi.183
• Bockmann, M.W. (2019, August 16). Seized UK Tanker Likely 'Spoofed' by Iran. Lloyd's List. https://lloydslist.maritimeintelligence.informa.com/LL1128820/Seized-UK-tanker-likely-spoofed-by-Iran
• Boling, A., Kuo, L., Snyder, L., & Sung, L. (2021, September 9). UNMASKED: Vessel Identity Laundering and North Korea's Maritime Sanctions Evasion. Center for Advanced Defense Studies (C4ADS). https://c4ads.org/s/Unmasked-North-Korea-Vessel-Identity-Laundering-ntbe.pdf
• Bransby, M. (2018, November 1). Innovation: An Alternative to GNSS for Maritime Positioning. GPS World. https://www.gpsworld.com/innovation-an-alternative-to-gnss-for-maritime-positioning/
• Braw, E. (2018, December 17). The GPS Wars Are Here. Foreign Policy. https://foreignpolicy.com/2018/12/17/the-gps-wars-are-here/
• Buesnel, G. (2017, September 14). DEFCON25: GPS Time Spoofing Now "Simple Party Trick" - Researcher. Ospirent. https://www.spirent.com/blogs/defcon-25
• Buesnel, G. (2020, December 2). Thousands of GNSS Jamming and Spoofing Incidents Reported in 2020. https://rntfnd.org/2020/12/24/thousands-of-gnss-jamming-and-spoofing-incidents-reported-in-2020-guy-buesnel/
• Burgess, M. (2017, September 21). When a Tanker Vanishes, All the Evidence Points to Russia. WIRED. https://www.wired.co.uk/article/black-sea-ship-hacking-russia
• Burgess, M. (2022, December 15). GPS Signals Are Being Disrupted in Russian Cities. WIRED. https://www.wired.com/story/gps-jamming-interference-russia-ukraine/
• Burgess, M. (2024, April 30). The Dangerous Rise of GPS Attacks. WIRED. https://www.wired.com/story/the-dangerous-rise-of-gps-attacks/
• Bunwaree, P. (2023, January 11). The Illegality of Fishing Vessels 'Going Dark' and Methods of Deterrence. International & Comparative Law Quarterly, 72(1), 179-211. DOI: 10.1017/S0020589322000525
• Cadet, O., & Rinnan, A. (2016, October). Who Said That DP Does Not Rhyme With Cybersecurity? Dynamic Positioning Conference, Octiber 11-12, 2016. https://dynamic-positioning.com/proceedings/dp2016/Cybersecurity_Cadet_pp_2016.pdf
• Cameron, A. (2019, April 2). Russia Practices Widespread Spoofing. GPS World. https://www.gpsworld.com/russia-practices-widespread-spoofing
• Center for Advanced Defense Studies (C4ADS). (2019). Above Us Only Stars: Exposing GPS Spoofing in Russia and Syria. https://www.c4reports.org/aboveusonlystars
• Center for Advanced Defense Studies (C4ADS). (2019, December 2). Shanghai GPS Spoofing. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1dTWu7H9JjRyN0uQPZ9HwiUzCFd7cd5pL
• Chow, B.G., & Kelley, B.W. (2021, July 28). Peace in the Era of Weaponized Space. SpaceNews. https://spacenews.com/op-ed-peace-in-the-era-of-weaponized-space/
• Clements, Z., Ellis, P., Psiaki, M., & Humphreys, T.E. (2022, September). Geolocation of Terrestrial GNSS Spoofing Signals from Low Earth Orbit. 2022 ION GNSS+ Conference, Denver, Colorado, Sept. 19-23, 2022. https://radionavlab.ae.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/2022/10/clements-spoofer-geolocation.pdf
• CockrellSchool. (2013, July 29). Spoofing on the High Seas [video]. Cockrell School's Department of Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, The University of Texas at Austin. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ctw9ECgJ8L0
• Courtnell, J. (2023, February 10). What is Spoofing? Your Complete Guide (+4 Key AIS Spoofing Typologies). Pole Star Space Applications. https://www.polestarglobal.com/resources/what-is-spoofing-your-complete-guide-4-key-ais-spoofing-typologies
• Curry, C. (2014, September 8) Detecting GPS Jammers: 'Gone in 20 Seconds.' CGSIC Annual Conference. https://www.gps.gov/cgsic/meetings/2014/curry.pdf
• Cutlip, K. (2017, March). AIS for Safety and Tracking: A Brief History. Global Fishing Watch. https://globalfishingwatch.org/data/ais-for-safety-and-tracking-a-brief-history
• Czaplewski, K., & Goward, D. (2016, June). Global Navigation Satellite Systems - Perspectives on Development and Threats to System Operation. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 10(2), 183-192. DOI: 10.12716/1001.10.02.01
• Danilov, P.B. (2020, June 26). GPS Jamming Still Causing Problems in Finnmark. High North News. https://www.highnorthnews.com/en/gps-jamming-still-causing-problems-finnmark
• Dovis, F. (2019, September). Assessment of the Effect of RFI Threats on GNSS-based Downstream Applications. 32nd International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2019), Miami, Florida, September 16-20, 2019, pp. 2721-2741. DOI: 10.33012/2019.17124
• Divis, D.A. (2021, December 8). GPS-Independent Navigation at the Core of Space Development Agency's New LEO Constellation. Navigation Outlook. https://navoutlook.com/gps-independent-navigation-at-the-core-of-space-development-agencys-new-leo-constellation/
• Dunn, J.E. (2019, April 1). Russia Accused of Massive GPS Spoofing Campaign. Naked Security by Sophos. https://nakedsecurity.sophos.com/2019/04/01/russia-accused-of-massive-gps-spoofing-campaign/
• Dunn, K. (2018, November 21). Insight: Cyber Threats to Shipping Grow in East Mediterranean. S&P Global Platts. https://blogs.platts.com/2018/11/21/insight-cyber-threats-shipping-east-mediterranean/
• Dunn, K. (2020, January 22). Mysterious GPS Outages Are Wracking The Shipping Industry. Fortune. https://fortune.com/longform/gps-outages-maritime-shipping-industry/
• Dunn, K. (2020, January 24). The Long Ocean Voyage That Helped Find The Flaws in GPS. Fortune. https://fortune.com/2020/01/24/gps-disruption-test-voyage/
• Easton, I. (2009, August 10). The Great Game in Space: China's Evolving ASAT Weapons Programs and Their Implications for Future U.S. Strategy. Project 2049 Institute. https://project2049.net/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/china_asat_weapons_the_great_game_in_space.pdf
• Erstad, E., Lund, M.S., & Ostnes, R. (2022). Navigating Through Cyber Threats, A Maritime Navigator's Experience. In Tareq Ahram & Waldemar Karwowski (eds.), Human Factors in Cybersecurity, 53, 84–91. DOI: 10.54941/ahfe1002205
• European Union Agency for the Space Programme (EUSPA). (2021, November 10). Galileo Open Service Navigation Message Authentication (OSNMA). EUSPA Info Note. https://www.gsc-europa.eu/sites/default/files/sites/all/files/Galileo_OSNMA_Info_Note.pdf
• Fischer, J. (2020, September 2). Resilient PNT: How to Detect, Protect and Prevent Disruption of GPS/GNSS/PNT Signals and Sources. Orolia. https://www.orolia.com/resilient-pnt-how-to-detect-protect-and-prevent-disruption-of-gps-gnss-pnt-signals-and-sources-2/
• González, R., Lacarra, E., López, M., & Heikonen, K. (2021, September). EGNOS Performance Along Finnish Coast. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 15(3), 551-556. DOI: 10.12716/1001.15.03.07
• Goodman, J. (2021, May 28). Tanker's Impossible Voyage Signals New Sanction Evasion Ploy. yahoo!news. https://news.yahoo.com/tanker-impossible-voyage-signals-sanction-040109857.html
• Goodman, J. (2022 February 3). Digital Warfare Tech at Sea Helping US Foes Evade Sanctions. AP News. https://apnews.com/article/technology-business-middle-east-iran-shipping-44d5cdc52e589c44a7bb0fc5be59d156
• Gorman, S. (2024, April 8). America is Losing its GPS Dominance to China’s BeiDou Satnav. SpaceNews. https://spacenews.com/america-losing-gps-dominance-china-beidou-satnav/
• Goudossis, A, & Katsikas, S.K. (2019, June). Towards a Secure Automatic Identification System (AIS). Journal of Marine Science and Technology, 24(2), 410-423. DOI: 10.1007/s00773-018-0561-3
• Goudossis, A, & Katsikas, S.K. (2020, June). Secure AIS With Identity-Based Authentication and Encryption. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 14(2). DOI: 10.12716/1001.14.02.03
• Goward, D. (2017). GPS Jamming and Spoofing: Maritime's Biggest Cyber Threat. In J. DiRenzo III, N.K. Drumhiller, & F.S. Roberts (Ed.), Issues in Maritime Cyber Security, pp. 407-415. Washington, D.C.: Westphalia Press.
• Goward, D. (2017, July 11). Mass GPS Spoofing Attack in Black Sea? The Maritime Executive. https://maritime-executive.com/editorials/mass-gps-spoofing-attack-in-black-sea
• Goward, D.A. (2018, December). GNSS Spoofing - A Technology Re/evolution. US National PNT Advisory Board. https://www.gps.gov/governance/advisory/meetings/2018-12/goward.pdf
• Goward, D. (2019, June 19). The History of GPS Spoofing [video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L2fZGVVH5lg
• Goward, D. (2019, August 13). GPS Jamming and Spoofing Reported at Port of Shanghai. The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/gps-jamming-and-spoofing-at-port-of-shanghai
• Goward, D. (2020, April 21). GPS Circle Spoofing Discovered in Iran. GPS World. https://www.gpsworld.com/gps-circle-spoofing-discovered-in-iran/
• Goward, D. (2020, May 26). New GPS 'Circle Spoofing' Moves Ship Locations Thousands of Miles. GPS World. https://www.gpsworld.com/new-gps-circle-spoofing-moves-ship-locations-thousands-of-miles/
• Goward, D.A. (2021, April 14). Assured PNT Summit - Opening Remarks. Defense Strategies Institute Assured PNT Summit. https://rntfnd.org/2021/04/16/assured-pnt-summit-opening-remarks/
• Goward, D. (2022, January 4). NSC Director: GPS 'Still a Single Point of Failure.' GPS World. https://www.gpsworld.com/nsc-director-gps-still-a-single-point-of-failure/
• Goward, D. (2022, January 13. GPS Spoofing — History and Prevention [video]. Association of Old Crows. https://event.on24.com/wcc/r/3393437/A17F616C03AAAEA78105E26B4986E22B
• Goward, D.A. (2022, April 19). Op-Ed: Get the Bullseye Off GPS. Space News. https://spacenews.com/op-ed-get-the-bullseye-off-gps/
• Goward, D.A. (2022, July 22). Why Isn't Russia jamming GPS harder in Ukraine? C4ISRNET. https://www.c4isrnet.com/opinion/2022/07/22/why-isnt-russia-jamming-gps-harder-in-ukraine/
• Goward, D.A. (2023, January 26). GPS could have high accuracy and counter spoofing, if... GPS World. https://www.gpsworld.com/gps-could-have-high-accuracy-and-counter-spoofing-if/
• GPS Denied Solutions and Upcoming Technologies. (2021, May 11). Advanced Navigation. https://www.advancednavigation.com/news/gps-denied-solutions-and-upcoming-technologies
• GPSPATRON. (2021, September 26). GNSS Spoofing Scenarios with SDRs. https://gpspatron.com/gnss-spoofing-scenarios-with-sdrs/
• Graham, L. (2017, February 1). Shipping Industry Vulnerable to Cyber Attacks and GPS Jamming. CNBC. https://www.cnbc.com/2017/02/01/shipping-industry-vulnerable-to-cyber-attacks-and-gps-jamming.html
• Grant, A., Williams, P., Ward, N., & Basker, S. (2009, April). GPS Jamming and the Impact on Maritime Navigation. The Journal of Navigation, 62(2). DOI: 10.1017/S0373463308005213
• Gross, J.A. (2019, June 28). GPS Jamming Affecting Israel Comes From Russian Base in Syria: US Researcher. The Times of Israel. https://www.timesofisrael.com/gps-jamming-affecting-israel-comes-from-russian-base-in-syria-us-researcher/
• Hackney, D. (n.d.). Hacking the Ship Scenario: An Offshore Supply Vessel's Dynamic Positioning System. ABS Group. https://www.abs-group.com/Knowledge-Center/Insights/Hacking-the-Ship-Scenario-An-Offshore-Supply-Vessels-Dynamic-Positioning-System/
• Hambling, D. (2017, August 10). Ships Fooled in GPS Spoofing Attack Suggest Russian Cyberweapon. NewScientist. https://www.newscientist.com/article/2143499-ships-fooled-in-gps-spoofing-attack-suggest-russian-cyberweapon/
• Hambling, D. (2020, October 4). What Would the World do Without GPS? BBC. https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20201002-would-the-world-cope-without-gps-satellite-navigation
• Hamill-Stewart, J., & Sallay, A. (ed.). (2023, March 6). The Cyber Vulnerabilities of Dynamic Positioning Systems. The Maritime Executive. https://maritime-executive.com/editorials/the-cyber-vulnerabilities-of-dynamic-positioning-systems
• Hansen, A., Mackey, S., Wassaf, H., Shah, V., Wallischeck, E., Scarpone, C., Barzach, M., & Baskerville, E. (2021, January). Complementary PNT and GPS Backup Technologies Demonstration Report. Cambridge (MA): U.S. Department of Transportation, John A Volpe National Transportation Systems Center, Report DOT-VNTSC-20-07. https://www.transportation.gov/sites/dot.gov/files/2021-01/FY%2718%20NDAA%20Section%201606%20DOT%20Report%20to%20Congress_Combinedv2_January%202021.pdf
• Hanyok, R.J. (1998, February 24). Skunks, Bogies, Silent Hounds, and the Flying Fish: The Gulf of Mystery, 2-4 August 1964. Cryptologic Quarterly, 19/20, 4-1. https://nsarchive2.gwu.edu/NSAEBB/NSAEBB132/relea00012.pdf
• Harris, M. (2019, November 15). Ghost Ships, Crop Circles, and Soft Gold: A GPS Mystery in Shanghai. MIT Technology Review. https://www.technologyreview.com/s/614689/ghost-ships-crop-circles-and-soft-gold-a-gps-mystery-in-shanghai/
• Harris, M. (2021, July 29). Phantom Warships Are Courting Chaos in Conflict Zones. WIRED. https://www.wired.com/story/fake-warships-ais-signals-russia-crimea/
• Harrison, T., Johnson, K., Roberts, T.G., Way, T., & Young, M. (2020, March). Space Threat Assessment 2020. Center For Strategic And International Studies (CSIS) Aerospace Security Project. https://aerospace.csis.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/03/Harrison_SpaceThreatAssessment20_WEB_FINAL-min.pdf
• Hemminghaus, C., Bauer, J., & Padilla, E. (2021, March). BRAT: A BRidge Attack Tool for Cyber Security Assessments of Maritime Systems. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 15(1). DOI: 10.12716/1001.15.01.02
• Hoffmann, J. (2021, December 1). The Importance of AIS in Times of a Supply Chain Crisis. MarineTraffic blog. https://www.marinetraffic.com/blog/the-importance-of-ais-in-times-of-a-supply-chain-crisis/?utm_campaign=GH%20Project%20MFB&utm_medium=email&_hsmi=105642400&_hsenc=p2ANqtz-9X_b1v8FrBjSyfcJRl1UzYT_uWgQvkwHm9TNajyw1fsFxyhXXUUYZh8wHBU3sFETWVIW3iACBecwHLFjrYOh7pd3i-WA&utm_content=105642400&utm_source=hs_automation
• How SailPlan's Cloud-based Platform is Optimising Navigational Decision-making. (2021, March 5). Vessel Performance Optimisation. https://vpoglobal.com/2021/03/05/how-sailplans-cloud-based-platform-is-optimising-navigational-decision-making/
• Hu, H., & Wei, N. (2009). A Study of GPS Jamming and Anti-jamming. 2009 2nd International Conference on Power Electronics and Intelligent Transportation System (PEITS), December 19-20, 2009. DOI: 10.1109/PEITS.2009.5406988
• Humphreys, T. (2012, August 24). Resilient and Robust PNT. ION Joint Navigation Conference. https://rntfnd.us3.list-manage.com/track/click?u=06a79dfa9d702640cd0cee682&id=40316749a7&e=45ff616045
• Iannucci, P.A., & Humphreys, T.E. (2020, September 25). Fused Low-Earth-Orbit GNSS. The University of Texas at Austin Radionavigation Laboratory. https://arxiv.org/pdf/2009.12334.pdf
• Industrial Safety and Security (ISS) Source. (2021, March 1). Tool to Protect Against GPS Spoofing. ISSSource.com. https://isssource.com/tool-to-protect-against-gps-spoofing/
• International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities (IALA). (2016, June). An Overview of AIS, Edition 2. IALA Guideline 1082. https://www.navcen.uscg.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/IALA_Guideline_1082_An_Overview_of_AIS.pdf
• International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2021, October 18). Deliberate Interference With the United States' Global Positioning Sytsem (GPS) and Other Global Navigation Staellite Systems (GNSS). MSC.1/Circ.1644. https://rntfnd.org/wp-content/uploads/IMO-Circular-MSC.1-Circ.1644-Deliberate-Interference-With-The-United-States-Global-Positioning-System-Gps-And-Other...-Secretariat.pdf_safe.pdf
• International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2002, July 1). International Convention for the Safety of Life at Sea (SOLAS), Chapter V (Safety of Navigation), Regulation 19 (Carriage requirements for shipborne navigational systems and equipment). https://www.navcen.uscg.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/AIS/SOLAS.V.19.2.1-5.pdf
International Telecommunication Union (ITU). (2014, February 18). Technical Characteristics for an Automatic Identification System Using Time-Division Multiple Access in the VHF Maritime Mobile Band. Radiocommunication Sector (ITU-R) Recommendation M.1371. https://www.itu.int/rec/R-REC-M.1371-5-201402-I/en
• Jones, M. (2017, October 11). Spoofing in the Black Sea: What Really Happened? GPS World. https://www.gpsworld.com/spoofing-in-the-black-sea-what-really-happened/
• Kayisoglu, G., Bolat, P., & Tam, K. (2022, October 5). Evaluating SLIM-based Human Error Probability for ECDIS Cybersecurity in Maritime. The Journal of Navigation. DOI: 10.1017/S0373463322000534
• Kessler, G.C. (2020, May 1). AIS Replay and Spoofing [video]. https://www.garykessler.net/gck/AIS_replay_and_spoofing.mp4
• Kessler, G.C. (2020, June). Protected AIS: A Demonstration of Capability Scheme to Provide Authentication and Message Integrity. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 14(2), 279-286. DOI: 10.12716/1001.14.02.02
• Kessler, G.C. (2021, August 22). AIS Spoof of a Warship [video]. https://www.garykessler.net/gck/202108_MOSKVA_spoof.mp4
• Kessler, G.C. (2023, September 11). AIS Research Using a Raspberry Pi (2022 Update). https://www.garykessler.net/library/ais_pi.html
• Kessler, G.C., Craiger, J.P., & Haass, J. (2018, September). A Taxonomy Framework for Maritime Cybersecurity: A Demonstration Using the Automatic Identification System. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 12(3), 429-437. DOI: 10.12716/1001.12.03.01
• Khalife, J., Neinavaie, M., & Kassas, Z.M. (2021, September 20). The First Carrier Phase Tracking and Positioning Results with Starlink LEO Satellite Signals. IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems. DOI: 10.1109/TAES.2021.3113880
• Kraetzig, N.M. (2020, July 24). A Complete Guide to Marine Traffic Tracking Technologies and AIS Data. UP42. https://up42.com/blog/tech/a-complete-guide-to-marine-traffic-tracking-tech-and-ais-data
• Kristić, M., Žuškin, S., Brčic, D., & Car, M. (2021, June). Overreliance on ECDIS Technology: A Challenge for Safe Navigation. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 15(2), 277-287. DOI: 10.12716/1001.15.02.02
• Kurmanaev, A. (2022, September 3). How Fake GPS Coordinates Are Leading to Lawlessness on the High Seas. The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2022/09/03/world/americas/ships-gps-international-law.html
• Lambert, N., & Goward, D.A. (2020, November). Solution to GPS Hacking. Sea Technology, 8-10. https://lsc-pagepro.mydigitalpublication.com/publication/?m=60787&i=680110&p=8
• Leite Junior, W.C., de Moraes, C.C., de Albuquerque, C.E.P., Machado, R.C.S., & de Sá, A.O. (2021, May 4). A Triggering Mechanism for Cyber-Attacks in Naval Sensors and Systems. Sensors, 21(9), 3195. DOI: 10.3390/s21093195
• Lombardi, M.A. (2021, November). An Evaluation of Dependencies of Critical Infrastructure Timing Systems on the Global Positioning System (GPS). National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Technical Note (TN) 2189, U.S. Department of Commerce. DOI: 10.6028/NIST.TN.2189
• Longo, G., Martelli, M., Russo, E., & Zaccone, R. (2022, Sepetember 1). Collision-avoidance Capabilities Reduction After a Cyber-Attack to the Navigation Sensors. International Ship Control Systems Symposium, November 8-10, 2022. DOI: 10.24868/10729
• Longo, G., Martelli, M., Russo, E., Merlo, A., & Zaccone, R. (2023, December 26). Adversarial Waypoint Injection Attacks on Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) Collision Avoidance Systems. Journal of Marine Engineering & Technology, 23(3), 184-195. DOI: 10.1080/20464177.2023.2298521
• Longo, G., Merlo, A., Armando, A., & Russo, E. (2023, October). Electronic Attacks as a Cyber False Flag Against Maritime Radars Systems. 1st International Workshop on Maritime Communication and Security (MarCaS), 2023 IEEE 48th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Daytona Beach, FL, USA, 2-5 October 2023. DOI: 10.1109/LCN58197.2023.10223370
• Longo, G., Russo, E., Armando, A. & Merlo, A. (2023, June 1). Attacking (and Defending) the Maritime Radar System. IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics and Security, 18, 3575-3589. DOI: 10.1109/TIFS.2023.3282132 (also 10.48550/ARXIV.2207.05623)
• Lund, M.S., Hareide, O.S., & Jøsok, Ø. (2018). An Attack on an Integrated Navigation System. Necesse, 3(2), 149-163. http://www.mass-lund.no/publications/Necesse.pdf
• Maritime Administration (MARAD). (2017, June 22). Black Sea-GPS Interference. Maritime Security Communications with Industry (MSCI) Advisory 2017-005A. https://www.maritime.dot.gov/content/2017-005a-black-sea-gps-interference
• Maritime Administration (MARAD). (2018, May 7). Eastern Mediterranean Sea-GPS Interference, MSCI Advisory 2018-007. https://www.maritime.dot.gov/content/2018-007-eastern-mediterranean-sea-gps-interference
• Maritime Administration (MARAD). (2018, November 8). Eastern Mediterranean Sea-GPS Interference, MSCI Advisory 2018-014. https://www.maritime.dot.gov/content/2018-014-eastern-mediterranean-sea-gps-interference
• Matyszczyk, C. (2013, August). Truck Driver has GPS Jammer, Accidently Jams Newark Airport. CNET. https://www.cnet.com/news/truck-driver-has-gps-jammer-accidentally-jams-newark-airport/
• McCrystal, S. (2018, February 16). Detecting and Defeating GPS Jamming. The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/blog/detecting-and-defeating-gps-jamming
• Mehrzadi, M., Terriche, Y., Su, C.-L., Bin Othman1, M., Vasquez1and, J.C., & Guerrero1, J.M. (2020, June 19). Review of Dynamic Positioning Control in Maritime Microgrid Systems. Energies, 13(12):3188. DOI: 10.3390/en13123188
• Meucci, G., Karahoda, B., Oveis, A.H., Mancuso, F., Jajaga, E., & Cantelli-Forti, A. (2023, October). Naval Cybersecurity in the Age of AI: Deceptive ISAR Images Generation with GANs. 1st International Workshop on Maritime Communication and Security (MarCaS), 2023 IEEE 48th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Daytona Beach, FL, USA, 2-5 October 2023. DOI: 10.1109/LCN58197.2023.10223338
• Milner, G. (2020, August 6). How Vulnerable Is G.P.S.? The New Yorker. https://www.newyorker.com/tech/annals-of-technology/how-vulnerable-is-gps
• Misra, P., & Enge, P. (2012). Global Positioning System: Signals, Measurement, and Performance, 2/e revised and updated. Lincoln, MA: Ganga-Jamuna Press.
• Mundhra, S. (2022, February 10). China's BeiDou, Russia's Glonass Pact On Satellite Navigation Another Booster For Moscow-Beijing Military Ties. The EurAsian Times. https://eurasiantimes.com/china-russia-cooperation-on-satellite-navigation-systems
• Murrian, M.J., Narula, L., Iannucci, P.A., Budzien, S., O'Hanlon, B.W., Psiaki, M.L., & Humphreys, T.E. ((2021, Winter). First Results From Three Years of GNSS Interference Monitoring From Low Earth Orbit. NAVIGATION: Journal of the Institute of Navigation, 68(4), 673-685. DOI: 10.1002/navi.449 [NB: ION Webinar]
• National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA). (2020). OneNet Standard for IP Networking of Marine Electronic Devices. https://www.nmea.org/content/STANDARDS/OneNet
• NovAtel Inc. (2015). An Introduction to GNSS: GPS, GLONASS, BeiDou, Galileo and other Global Navigation Satellite Systems, 2/e. http://www2.novatel.com/GNSSBook
• O'Hanlon, B.W., Psiaki, M.L., Bhatti, J.A., Shepard, D.P., & Humphreys, T.E. (2013, Winter). Real-Time GPS Spoofing Detection Via Correlation Of Encrypted Signals. NAVIGATION: Journal Of The Institute Of Navigation, 60(4), 267-278. DOI: 10.1002/navi.44
• Oceana. (2020, September). Oceana Finds 300 Chinese Vessels Pillaging the Galapagos for Squid. https://usa.oceana.org/sites/default/files/galapagos_mini_report_finalupdateddoi.pdf, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.4118526
• Oceana. (2021, June). Now You See Me, Now You Don't: Vanishing Vessels Along Argentina’s Waters. https://usa.oceana.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/4/2021/06/oceana_argentina_mini_report_finalupdated.pdf, DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.4893397
• Oruç, A., Gkioulos, V., & Katsikas, S. (2022, January). Towards a Cyber-Physical Range for the Integrated Navigation System (INS). Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 10, 107. DOI: 10.3390/jmse10010107
• Oruc, A., Amro, A., & Gkioulos, V. (2022, November 12). Assessing Cyber Risks of an INS Using the MITRE ATT&CK Framework. Sensors, 22(22), 8745. DOI: 10.3390/s22228745
• Oruc, A., Kavallieratos, G., Gkioulos, V., & Katsikas, S. (2024, March). Cyber Risk Assessment for SHips (CRASH). TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 18(1), 115-124. DOI: 10.12716/1001.18.01.10
• Oruc, M.F., & Altan, Y.C. (2023, April 28). Risky Maritime Encounter Patterns via Clustering. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 11(5), 950. DOI: 10.3390/jmse11050950
• Paterson, P. (2008, February). The Truth About Tonkin. Naval History Magazine, 22(1). https://www.usni.org/magazines/naval-history-magazine/2008/february/truth-about-tonkin
• Pérez Marcos, E., Konovaltsev, A., Caizzone, S., Cuntz, M., Yinusa, K., Elmarissi, W., & Meurer, M. (2018, September). Interference and Spoofing Detection for GNSS Maritime Applications using Direction of Arrival and Conformal Antenna Array. 31st International Technical Meeting of The Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2018), Miami, Florida, September 24-28, 2018, pp. 2907-2922. DOI: 10.33012/2018.15901
• Pili, G., Armenzoni, A., Kessler, G.C., & Zorri, D.M. (2025, February 6). Playing the Long Game — Russia in the Mediterranean. NATO Defense College (NDU) Outlook No. 03. https://www.ndc.nato.int/news/news.php?icode=1999
• PNT and Great Power Competition. (2023, June 30). Resilient Navigation and Timing (RNT) Foundation blog. https://rntfnd.org/2023/06/30/pnt-and-great-power-competition/
• PNT Security is Part of Cybersecurity — Pending Advisory Board Recommendation. (2022, November 18). Resilient Navigation and Timing (RNT) Foundation blog. https://rntfnd.org/2022/11/18/pnt-security-is-part-of-cybersecurity-pending-advisory-board-recommendation/
• Poling, G.B., Mallory, T.B., & Prétat, H. (2021, November). Pulling Back the Curtain on China's Maritime Militia. A Report of the Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS) Asia Maritime Transparency Initiative and the Center for Advanced Defense Studies (C4ADS). https://csis-website-prod.s3.amazonaws.com/s3fs-public/publication/211118_Poling_Maritime_Militia.pdf
• Proctor, A. (2021, November). Developing A PNT Architecture Framework. Royal Institute of Navigation’s (RIN) International Navigation Conference. https://rntfnd.us3.list-manage.com/track/click?u=06a79dfa9d702640cd0cee682&id=57716b5831&e=45ff616045
• Psiaki, M.L. (2021, Fall). Navigation Using Carrier Doppler Shift from a LEO Constellation: TRANSIT on Steroids. NAVIGATION: Journal of the Institute of Navigation, 68(3), 621-641. DOI: 10.1002/navi.438
• Psiaki, M.L., & Humphreys, T.E. (2016, January 8). GNSS Spoofing and Detection. UT Radionavigation Lab, The University of Texas at Austin. https://radionavlab.ae.utexas.edu/images/stories/files/papers/gnss_spoofing_detection.pdf
• Psiaki, M.L., & Humphreys, T.E. (2016, August). Attackers Can Spoof Navigation Signals Without Our Knowledge. Here's How to Fight Back GPS Lies. IEEE Spectrum, 53(8), 26-32, 52-53. DOI: 10.1109/MSPEC.2016.7524168
• Psiaki, M.L., O'Hanlon, B.W., Bhatti, J.A., Shepard, D.P., & Humphreys, T.E. (2013, October). GPS Spoofing Detection Via Dual-Receiver Correlation Of Military Signals. IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, 49(4), 2250-2267. 10.1109/TAES.2013.6621814
• Royal Institute of Navigation. (2020, June 26). When GNSS Fails, What Will You Do? [video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5T6v1HK-a6s
• Russian Electronic Warfare System Is Capable Of Neutralizing GPS, Galileo and BeiDou Systems. (2021, February 1). Sputnik International News. https://rntfnd.org/2021/02/04/russian-electronic-warfare-system-is-capable-of-neutralizing-gps-galileo-and-beidou-systems-sputnik-international/
• Schweber, B. (2022, August 3). What? LORAN May be Back? Why? How? Part 1. MICROCONTROLLER TiPS. https://www.microcontrollertips.com/what-loran-may-be-back-why-how-part-1-faq/
• Schweber, B. (2022, August 4). What? LORAN May be Back? Why? How? Part 2. MICROCONTROLLER TiPS. https://www.microcontrollertips.com/what-loran-may-be-back-why-how-part-2-faq/
• Schweber, B. (2022, August 5). What? LORAN May be Back? Why? How? Part 3. MICROCONTROLLER TiPS. https://www.microcontrollertips.com/what-loran-may-be-back-why-how-part-3-faq/
• Schweitzer Engineering Laboratories. (2014, November 3). Mitigating GPS Vulnerabilities. SEL Technical Paper, 6(4). https://selinc.com/solutions/synchrophasors/report/111935/
• Sewall, S., Vandenberg, T., & Malden, K. (2023, February). China's BeiDou: New Dimensions of Great Power Competition. Belfer Center for Science and International Affairs, Harvard Kennedy School. https://www.belfercenter.org/sites/default/files/files/publication/Chinas-BeiDou_V10.pdf
• Spens, N., Lee, D.-K., Nedelkov, F., & Akos, D. (2022, September). Detecting GNSS Jamming and Spoofing on Android Devices. NAVIGATION, 69(3). https://navi.ion.org/content/69/3/navi.537 [Webinar]
• Starr, B., Browne, R., & Fox, K. (2019, July 19). Iran Announces Capture of British-Flagged Oil Tanker; US Officials Say Two Ships Seized. CNN. https://www.cnn.com/2019/07/19/middleeast/british-tanker-seized-iran-intl/
• Stenberg, N., Axell, E., Rantakokko, J., & Hendeby, G. (2022, March). Results on GNSS Spoofing Mitigation Using Multiple Receivers. NAVIGATION, Journal of the Institute of Navigation, 69(1). DOI: 10.33012/navi.510
• Su, M., Su, X., Zhao, Q., & Liu, J. (2019, January 7). BeiDou Augmented Navigation from Low Earth Orbit Satellites. Sensors, 19(1), 198. DOI: 10.3390/s19010198
• Sukheja, B. (2020, August 10). China's Fishing Fleet Near Galapagos Islands Falsifying GPS Location: Reports. RepublicWorld.com. https://www.republicworld.com/world-news/china/chinas-fishing-fleet-near-galapagos-islands-falsifying-gps-location.html
• Surinov I. & Shumilov D. (2023, September). Cybersecurity of the Processes of Manoeuvring in Confined Waters. TransNav, the International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 17(3), 723-732. DOI: 10.12716/1001.17.03.25
• Sutton, H.I. (2021, June 21). Positions of Two NATO Ships Were Falsified Near Russian Black Sea Naval Base. USNI News. https://news.usni.org/2021/06/21/positions-of-two-nato-ships-were-falsified-near-russian-black-sea-naval-base
• Sutton, H.I. (2021, December 3). Attacking Open Source Intelligence: The Fake AIS Data Epidemic Explained [video]. Covert Shores. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dnuKpd0TNKc
• Svilicic, B., Brčić, D., Žuškin, S., & Kalebić, D. (2019, March). Raising Awareness on Cyber Security of ECDIS. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 13(1), 231-236. DOI: 10.12716/1001.13.01.24
• Svilicic, B., Kamahara, J., Celic, J., & Bolmsten, J. (2019, Octiber 25). Assessing Ship Cyber Risks: A Framework and Case Study of ECDIS Security. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 18(3), 509–520. DOI: 10.1007/s13437-019-00183-x
• Svilicic, B., Kristić, M., Žuškin, S., & Brčić, D. (2020, December). Paperless Ship Navigation: Cyber Security Weaknesses. Journal of Transportation Security , 13(3-4), 203-214. DOI: 10.1007/s12198-020-00222-2
• Svilicic, B., Rudan, I., Frančić, V., & Doričić, M. (2019). Shipboard ECDIS Cyber Security: Third-Party Component Threats. Scientific Journal of Maritime Research, 33(2), 176-180. DOI: 10.31217/p.33.2.7
• Svilicic, B., Rudan, I., Jugović, A., & Zec, D. (2019). A Study on Cyber Security Threats in a Shipboard Integrated Navigational System. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 7(10). https://www.mdpi.com/2077-1312/7/10/364/pdf
• Tabatabaei, A. (2023, July/August). Resilience Assessment of GNSS COTS Receivers Against Sophisticated Spoofing Attacks. Inside GNSS+, 18(4), 56-65.
• Tam, K., Vineetha Harish, A., & Jones, K. (2023, September 21). BridgeInsight: An Asset Profiler for Penetration Testing in a Heterogenous Maritime Bridge Environment. Maritime Technology and Research, 6(1). DOI: 10.33175/mtr.2024.266818
• The Signal Jammer. (2020, January 3). GPS Jammers. https://www.thesignaljammer.com/categories/GPS-Jammers/
• Tippenhauer, N.O., Pöpper, C., Rasmussen, K.B., & Čapkun, S. (2011, October). On the Requirements for Successful GPS Spoofing Attacks. CCS '11: Proceedings of the 18th ACM Conference on Computer and Communications Security, pp. 75-86. https://dl.acm.org/doi/pdf/10.1145/2046707.2046719
• Trevithick, J. (2019, November 18). New Type Of GPS Spoofing Attack In China Creates 'Crop Circles' Of False Location Data. The War Zone Wire. https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/31092/new-type-of-gps-spoofing-attack-in-china-creates-crop-circles-of-false-location-data
• Triebert, C., Migliozzi, B., Cardia, A., Xiao, M., & Botti, D. (2023, May 30). Fake Signals and American Insurance: How a Dark Fleet Moves Russian Oil. New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2023/05/30/world/asia/russia-oil-ships-sanctions.html
• Tucker, P. (2020, July 31). The Air Force's Latest GPS Alternative: Earth's Magnetic Fields. Defense One. https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2020/07/air-forces-latest-gps-alternative-earths-magnetic-fields/167387/
• Tucker, P. (2021, November 02). Quantum Sensor Breakthrough Paves Way For GPS-Free Navigation. Defense One. https://www.defenseone.com/technology/2021/11/quantum-sensor-breakthrough-paves-way-gps-free-navigation/186578/
• Tullis, P. (2019, December 1). GPS Is Easy to Hack, and the U.S. Has No Backup. Scientific American. https://www. scientificamerican.com/article/gps-is-easy-to-hack-and-the-u-s-has-no-backup/
• Under Attack – Receiver Response to Spoofing: Robustness vs. Resilience. (2020, September 30). Inside GNSS. https://insidegnss.com/under-attack-receiver-response-to-spoofing-robustness-vs-resilience/
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2022, Juny 22). AIS Requirements. USCG Navigation Center Web site. https://www.navcen.uscg.gov/ais-requirements
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2021, April 22). Worldwide Navigational Warnings Service. Marine Safety Information Bulletin (MSIB 05-21). https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/5p/MSIB/2021/MSIB_21-05_WorldwideNavigationalWarningsService.pdf
• U.S. Department of Transportation. (2020, December 9). Virtual Workshop on GPS Jamming and Spoofing in the Maritime Environment. https://www.transportation.gov/pnt/agenda-virtual-workshop-gps-jamming-and-spoofing-maritime-environment
• U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO). (2021, May). TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT: Defense Navigation Capabilities — DOD is Developing Positioning, Navigation, and Timing Technologies to Complement GPS (GAO-21-320SP). https://www.gao.gov/assets/gao-21-320sp.pdf
• U.S. Navy Ship Spoofed to Crimea. (2021, June 30). Resilient Navigation and Timing (RNT) Foundation blog. https://rntfnd.org/2021/06/30/u-s-navy-ship-spoofed-to-crimea/
• University of Plymouth. (2017, November 23). False AIS Data in Cyber-Attack Scenario [video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fTjCr0X0nRQ
• Using AI to Enhance Navigational Safety. (2021, May 21). Vessel Performance Optimisation. https://vpoglobal.com/2021/05/21/using-ai-to-enhance-navigational-safety/
• UT Radionavigation Lab. (2014, April 22). Spoofing on the High Seas [video]. The University of Texas at Austin. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oPAoys_v6wQ
• UTNews. (2013, July 30). Spoofing a Superyacht at Sea. The University of Texas at Austin. https://news.utexas.edu/2013/07/30/spoofing-a-superyacht-at-sea
• Vaughn, S., & Minichino, B. (2023, January 11). Encrypting Vessel ID Data Can Thwart Maritime Piracy. The Maritime Executive. https://maritime-executive.com/editorials/encrypting-vessel-id-data-can-thwart-maritime-piracy
• Watson, J.R., & Woodill, A. J. (2019, October 15). Anticipating Illegal Maritime Activities from Anomalous Multiscale Fleet Behaviors. https://arxiv.org/pdf/1910.05424.pdf
• Weise, E. (2017, October 3). Mysterious GPS Glitch Telling Ships They're Parked at Airport May be Anti-Drone Measure. USA TODAY. https://www.usatoday.com/story/tech/news/2017/09/26/gps-spoofing-makes-ships-russian-waters-think-theyre-land/703476001/
• Weiss, M., Diamond, P., & Goward, D.A. (2020, October 16). A Resilient National Timing Architecture. RNT Foundation. https://rntfnd.org/wp-content/uploads/Resilient-National-Timing-Architecture-16-Oct-2020.pdf
• Welch, H., Clavelle, T., White, T.D., Cimino1, M.A., Van Osdel, J., Hochberg, T., Kroodsma, D., & Hazen, E.L. (2022, November). Hot Spots of Unseen Fishing Vessels. Science Advances, 8(44). DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abq2109
• Westbrook, T. (2019). The Global Positioning System and Military Jamming: The Geographies of Electronic Warfare. Journal of Strategic Security, 12(2), 1-16. DOI: 10.5038/1944-0472.12.2.1720
• Whiting, T. (2020, April 27). GPS Celebrates 25th Year of Operation. U.S. Space Force News. https://www.spaceforce.mil/News/Article/2166101/gps-celebrates-25th-year-of-operation
• Wolfe, F. (2022, April 6). NTS-3 Experiment Offers Possibility of Adopting GPS/PNT Protection In Existing Production Lines. Defense Daily. https://www.defensedaily.com/nts-3-experiment-offers-possibility-of-adopting-gps-pnt-protection-in-existing-production-lines/space/
• Zorri, D.M., & Kessler, G.C. (2024, 1st Quarter). Position, Navigation, and Timing: Weaponization in the Maritime Domain Orientation in the Era of Great Systems Conflict. Joint Forces Quarterly, 112, 12-21. https://ndupress.ndu.edu/Portals/68/Documents/jfq/jfq-112/jfq-112.pdf
• Zorri, D.M., & Kessler, G.C. (2024, March 11). Position, Navigation, and Timing Weaponization in Maritime Domain: Orientation in the Era of Great Systems Conflict - Analysis. Eurasia Review. https://www.eurasiareview.com/11032024-position-navigation-and-timing-weaponization-in-maritime-domain-orientation-in-era-of-great-systems-conflict-analysis/

[Top of Section | Top of Page]
Chapter 7. Operational Technology and Autonomous Systems

• Advancement for Autonomous Operations on Deep-Sea Ships. (2020, October 2). The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/advancement-for-autonomous-operations-on-deep-sea-ships
• Alaba, F.A., Othman, M., Hashem, I.A.T., & Alotaibi, F. (2017, June 15). Internet of Things Security: A Survey. Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 88, 10-28. DOI: 10.1016/j.jnca.2017.04.002
• American Bureau of Shipping (ABS). (2021, July). Guide for Autonomous and Remote Control Functions. https://ww2.eagle.org/content/dam/eagle/rules-and-guides/current/other/323_gn_autonomous/autonomous-guide-july21.pdf
• American Bureau of Shipping (ABS). (2022, February). Autonomous Vessels. ABS White Paper. Access link: https://absinfo.eagle.org/acton/media/16130/autonomous-vessels
• Amirault, A., & Ferreira dos Santos, I. (2021). Securing Industrial Networks: What is ISA/IEC 62443? Cisco. https://www.cisco.com/c/en/us/td/docs/solutions/Verticals/IoT_Security_Lab/IEC62443_WP.pdf
• Amro, A., & Gkioulos, V. (2022, February 8). Communication and Cybersecurity Testbed for Autonomous Passenger Ship. ESORICS: European Symposium on Research in Computer Security (ESORICS 2021), Darmstadt, Germany, 4-8 October 2021. Lecture Notes in Computer Science (LNCS), 13106, 5-22. DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-95484-0_1
• Amro, A., & Gkioulos, V. (2022, November). Cyber Risk Management for Autonomous Passenger Ships Using Threat-Informed Defense-in-Depth. International Journal of Information Security. DOI: 10.1007/s10207-022-00638-y
• Anderson, M. (2020, January 3). Bon Voyage for the Autonomous Ship Mayflower. IEEE Spectrum. https://spectrum.ieee.org/energy/renewables/bon-voyage-for-the-autonomous-ship-mayflower
• Ashcraft, J., Zafra, D.K., & Brubaker, N. (2020, March 23). Monitoring ICS Cyber Operation Tools and Software Exploit Modules to Anticipate Future Threats. FireEye Threat Research. https://www.fireeye.com/blog/threat-research/2020/03/monitoring-ics-cyber-operation-tools-and-software-exploit-modules.html
• Ashraf, I., Park, Y., Hur, S., Kim, S.W., Alroobaea, R., Zikria, Y.B., & Nosheen, S. (2022, April 15). A Survey on Cyber Security Threats in IoT-Enabled Maritime Industry. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, 1-14. DOI: 10.1109/TITS.2022.3164678
• Aslam, S., Michaelides, M.P., & Herodotou, H. (2020, May 8). Internet of Ships: A Survey on Architectures, Emerging Applications, and Challenges. IEEE Internet of Things Journal. DOI: 10.1109/JIOT.2020.2993411
• Auto-Maskin. (n.d.). DCU 210E Engine Controller. https://www.auto-maskin.com/prod/dcu-210e
• Auto-Maskin. (n.d.). RP 210E Remote Panel. https://www.auto-maskin.com/prod/rp-210e
• Auto-Maskin. (2013, November 1). Marine Pro Observer. Similar Play. https://www.similarplay.com/automaskin/marine_pro_observer/apps/se.automaskin
• Auto-Maskin. (2019). Marine Pro Observer. Apple App Store. https://apps.apple.com/cz/app/marine-pro-observer/id1462043697
• Automatic Ferry Enters Regular Service Following World-First Crossing With Passengers Onboard. (2020, February 13). Kongsberg Maritime. https://www.kongsberg.com/maritime/about-us/news-and-media/news-archive/2020/first-adaptive-transit-on-bastofosen-vi/
• Belfkih, A., Duvallet, C., & Sadeg, B. (2017, May). The Internet of Things For Smart Ports Application to the Port of Le Havre. Intelligent Platform for Smart Port (IPaSPort) 2017, Normandie University, Le Havre, France, May 3-4, 2017.
• Berns, S., Vonck, I., Dickson, R., & Dragt, J. (2017). Smart Ports: Point of View. Deloitte Port Services. https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/nl/Documents/energy-resources/deloitte-nl-er-port-services-smart-ports.pdf
• Bertino, E. & Islam, N. (2017, February). Botnets and Internet of Things Security. IEEE Computer Magazine, 50(2), 76-79. DOI: 10.1109/MC.2017.62
• Billard, D. (2019). Investigation of an Alleged PLC Hacking on Sea Vessels. Journal of Physics, Conferenece Series, 1297. 5th International Scientific Conference SEA-CONF, 17–18 May 2019, Mircea cel Batran Naval Academy, Constanta, Romania. DOI: 10.1088/1742-6596/1297/1/012035
• Blenkey, N. (2019, October 21). ABB, Keppel Cooperate on Autonomous Tug for Singapore Ops. MarineLog. https://www.marinelog.com/coastal/tugs-barges/abb-keppel-cooperate-on-autonomous-tug-for-singapore-ops/
• Bolbot, V., Methlouthi, O., Banda, O.V., Xiang, L., Ding, Y., & Brunou, P. (2022, May). Identification of Cyber-attack Scenarios in a Marine Dual-Fuel Engine. MARTECH 2022. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/360298456_Identification_of_cyber-attack_scenarios_in_a_marine_Dual-Fuel_engine
• Cable News Network (CNN). (2007, September 27). Staged Cyber Attack Reveals Vulnerability in Power Grid [video]. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fJyWngDco3g
• Cantelli-Forti, A. (2018, June). Forensic Analysis of Industrial Critical Systems: The Costa Concordia's Voyage Data Recorder Case. 2018 IEEE International Conference on Smart Computing (SMARTCOMP), June 18-20, 2018, pp. 458–463. DOI: 10.1109/SMARTCOMP.2018.00046
• Cantelli-Forti, A., & Colajanni, M. (2020, April). Digital Forensics in Vessel Transportation Systems. In: Benzekri, A., Barbeau, M., Gong, G., Laborde, R., & Garcia-Alfaro, J. (eds.). Foundations and Practice of Security (FPS 2019), Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 12056, 354-362. Springer, Cham. DOI: 110.1007/978-3-030-45371-8_23
• Centre for Research in Cyber Security (iTrust). (2022, February 22). Guidelines for Cyber Risk Management in Shipboard Operational Technology Systems. Singapore University of Technology and Design (SUTD). https://itrust.sutd.edu.sg/wp-content/uploads/sites/3/2022/02/Guidelines-for-Cyber-Risk-Management-in-Shipboard-Operational-Technology-Systems-1st-Ed..pdf
• CERT Coordination Center (CERT/CC). (2018, October 16). Auto-Maskin DCU 210E RP 210E and Marine Pro Observer App, Vulnerability Note VU#176301. Carnegie Mellon University, Software Engineering Institute. https://www.kb.cert.org/vuls/id/176301
• Chambers, S. (2018, May 23). Wilhelmsen Takes Next Step on Rapidly Evolving Digital Voyage. Splash247. https://splash247.com/wilhelmsen-takes-next-step-rapidly-evolving-digital-voyage/
• Chandrika, N. (2022, September 13). Artificial Intelligence in Maritime Security. The International Prism. https://www.theinternationalprism.com/artificial-intelligence-in-maritime-security/
• Cheng, T., Veitch, E.A., Utne, I.B., Ramos, M.A., Mosleh, A., Alsos, O.A., & Wu, B. (2024, March). Analysis of Human Errors in Human-Autonomy Collaboration in Autonomous Ships Operations Through Shore Control Experimental Data. Reliability Engineering & System Safety, 246, 110080. DOI: 0.1016/j.ress.2024.110080
• Chin, C.S. & Venkateshkumar, M. (2021, December). Artificial Intelligence for Maritime Transport. IEEE Transportation Electrification Community Newsletter. https://tec.ieee.org/newsletter/december-2021/artificial-intelligence-for-maritime-transport
• Cimpanu, C. (2020, March 23). FireEye Warns About the Proliferation of Ready-Made ICS Hacking Tools. ZDNet. https://www.zdnet.com/article/fireeye-warns-about-the-proliferation-of-ready-made-ics-hacking-tools/
• Cregge, K. (2023, March 2). Every Ship a SAG and the LUSV Imperative. CIMSEC. https://cimsec.org/every-ship-a-sag-and-the-lusv-imperative/
• Croteau, B. (2023, October). Lessons Learned from Teaching a Maritime Industrial Control Systems Cybersecurity Course. 1st International Workshop on Maritime Communication and Security (MarCaS), 2023 IEEE 48th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Daytona Beach, FL, USA, 2-5 October 2023. DOI: 10.1109/LCN58197.2023.10223335
• Cruise Ship Piloted Remotely During Sea Trials. (2020, May 21). SAFETY4SEA. https://safety4sea.com/cruise-ship-piloted-remotely-during-sea-trials/
• Cusimano, J., Ayala, M., & Villano, G. (2020, November 10). Navigating Cybersecurity Challenges in Maritime Operational Technology. The Maritime Executive. https://maritime-executive.com/editorials/navigating-cybersecurity-challenges-in-maritime-operational-technology
• Cybersecurity and Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA). (2020, July 23). Alert (AA20-205A): NSA and CISA Recommend Immediate Actions to Reduce Exposure Across Operational Technologies and Control Systems. U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). https://us-cert.cisa.gov/ncas/alerts/aa20-205a
• Davis, G. (2023, June 4). The Cybersecurity Implications of IMO 2023. The Maritime Executive. https://maritime-executive.com/editorials/the-cybersecurity-implications-of-imo-2023
• Davis, R. & Inajima, T. (2021, August 31). First Autonomous Cargo Ship Faces Test With 236-Mile Voyage. gCaptain. https://gcaptain.com/first-autonomous-cargo-ship-faces-test-with-236-mile-voyage/
• de Albuquerque, C.E.P., Machado, R.C.S., de Sá, A.O., & de Toledo, C.R.B. (2022, November). Bibliometric Analysis on Cyber-Attacks in Naval Sensors and Systems. 2022 IEEE International Workshop on Metrology for the Sea: Learning to Measure Sea Health Parameters (MetroSea), October 3-5, 2022, pp. 474-478. DOI: 10.1109/MetroSea55331.2022.9950939
• Diaz, R., Ungo, R., Smith, K., Haghnegahdar, L., Singh, B., & Phuong, T. (2024, Jnauary). Applications of AI/ML in Maritime Cyber Supply Chains. Procedia Computer Science, 232(5), 3247-3257. 5th International Conference on Industry 4.0 and Smart Manufacturing. DOI: 10.1016/j.procs.2024.02.140
• Dow, M. (2020, August 31). Rise of Ransomware: Why OT is a Prime Target for Cybercriminals. Security. https://www.securitymagazine.com/articles/93197-rise-of-ransomware-why-ot-is-a-prime-target-for-cybercriminals
• Dragos. (2017, December 13). TRISIS Malware: Analysis of Safety System Targeted Malware, version 1.20171213. https://dragos.com/wp-content/uploads/TRISIS-01.pdf
• Ebert, C., & Dubey, A. (2019, May-June) Convergence of Enterprise IT and Embedded Systems. IEEE Software, 36(3), 92-97. DOI: 10.1109/MS.2019.2896508
• Eide, E., Breivik, M., Brekke, E.F., Eriksen, B.H., Wilthil, E.F., Helgesen, Ø.K., Thyri, E.H., Veitch, E., Alsos, O.A., & Johansen, T.A. (2025, January 3). The Autonomous Urban Passenger Ferry milliAmpere2: Design and Testing. Journal of Offshore Mechanics and Arctic Engineering, 147(3), 0314091, Paper #OMAE-24-1053. DOI: 10.1115/1.4067370
• Etherington, D. (2019, October 16). Autonomous "Mayflower" Research Ship Will Use IBM AI Tech to Cross the Atlantic in 2020. TechCrunch. https://techcrunch.com/2019/10/16/autonomous-mayflower-research-ship-will-use-ibm-ai-tech-to-cross-the-atlantic-in-2020/
• Evans, D. (2011, April). The Internet of Things: How the Next Evolution of the Internet Is Changing Everything. Cisco Systems White Paper. https://www.cisco.com/c/dam/en_us/about/ac79/docs/innov/IoT_IBSG_0411FINAL.pdf
• Falco Makes World's First Autonomous Ferry Crossing. (2018, December 3). The Engineer. https://www.theengineer.co.uk/falco-autonomous-ferry-rolls-royce/
• Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI). (2017, October 17). Common Internet of Things Devices May Expose Consumers to Cyber Exploitation. Public Service Announcement Alert No. I-101717a-PSA. https://www.ic3.gov/media/2017/171017-1.aspx
• Fehrm, B. (2018, November 14). Boeing's Automatic Trim for the 737 MAX was Not Disclosed to the Pilots. Leeham News. https://leehamnews.com/2018/11/14/boeings-automatic-trim-for-the-737-max-was-not-disclosed-to-the-pilots/
• Felski, A.,& Zwolak, K. (2020, January 15). The Ocean-Going Autonomous Ship—Challenges and Threats. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 8(1), 41. DOI: 10.3390/jmse8010041
• Feng, Z., Wu, X., Ma, L., & Ren, W. (2013). Toward Cyber-Physical Networks and Smartly Active Sensing IETM for Equipment Maintenance in Marine Ships. IET International Conference on Information and Communications Technologies (IETICT 2013), pp. 599-603. DOI: 10.1049/cp.2013.0107
• Fenton, A.J., & Chapsos, I. (2022, December). Robot Boats: Use of Autonomous 'Ships' in Law Enforcement, Terrorism and Counter-Terrorism. NATO Maritime Interdiction Operational Training Centre (NMIOTC) Journal, (24), 12-17. https://nmiotc.nato.int/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/24-2022.pdf
• Fleming, C., Elks, C., Bakirtzis, G., Adams, S.C., Carter, B., Beling, P.A., & Horowitz, B. (2020, November 29). Cyber-Physical Security Through Resiliency: A Systems-centric Approach. eprint arXiv:2011.14469. https://arxiv.org/abs/2011.14469v1
• Forescout Vedere Labs. (2013, February 13). Deep Lateral Movement in OT Networks: When Is a Perimeter Not a Perimeter? <) FORESCOUT Blog. https://www.forescout.com/blog/deep-lateral-movement-in-ot-networks-when-is-a-perimeter-not-a-perimeter/
• Furness, D. (2019, July 13). Autonomous Ships Are Coming, And We're Not Ready For Them. Digital Trends. https://www.digitaltrends.com/cool-tech/autonomous-ships-are-coming/
• Galdorisi, G. (2023, May 16). The Broadening Global Effort to Accelerate Unmanned Maritime Systems Development. CIMSEC. https://cimsec.org/the-broadening-global-effort-to-accelerate-unmanned-maritime-systems-development/
• Galloway, B., & Hancke, G.P. (2013, Second Quarter). Introduction to Industrial Control Networks. IEEE Communications Surveys & Tutorials, 15(2), 860-880. DOI: 10.1109/SURV.2012.071812.00124
• Green Ship of the Future. (2017, January 19). The Opportunity Space of 3D Print in the Maritime Industry. https://greenship.org/wp-content/uploads/2017/01/The-maritime-opportunity-space-of-3D-print.pdf
• Greenberg, A. (2017, June 12). 'Crash Override': The Malware That Took Down a Power Grid. WIRED. https://www.wired.com/story/crash-override-malware/
• Greenberg, A. (2019, November 28). A Notorious Iranian Hacking Crew is Targeting Industrial Control Systems. WIRED. https://www.wired.com/story/iran-apt33-industrial-control-systems/
• Greenberg, A. (2019). Sandworm: A New Era of Cyberwar and the Hunt for the Kremlin's Most Dangerous Hackers. New York: Doubleday.
• Greenberg, A. (2022, April 13). Feds Uncover a 'Swiss Army Knife' for Hacking Industrial Control Systems. WIRED. https://www.wired.com/story/pipedream-ics-malware/
• Gu, Y., Goez, J.C., Guajardo, M., & Wallace, S.W. (2021, July). Autonomous Vessels: State of the Art and Potential Opportunities in Logistics. International Transactions in Operational Research, 28(4), 1706-1739. DOI: 10.1111/itor.12785
• Haun, E. (2020, May 11). Yara Birkeland Project Paused Due to COVID-19. MarineLink. https://www.marinelink.com/news/yara-birkeland-project-paused-due-covid-478386
• Heilig, L., Schwarze, S., & Voss, S. (2017, January). An Analysis of Digital Transformation in the History and Future of Modern Ports. 50th Hawaii International Conference on System Sciences, pp. 1341-1350. https://aisel.aisnet.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1198&context=hicss-50
• Hensen, H., de Jong, J., van der Laan, M., & Merkelbach, D. (2019, November 7). The Road Towards Autonomous Ship Handling with Tugs. SWZ Maritime. https://www.swzmaritime.nl/news/2019/07/11/the-road-towards-autonomous-ship-handling-with-tugs/
• Horowitz, B.M. (2020, January-February). Cyberattack-Resilient Cyberphysical Systems. IEEE Security & Privacy, 18(1), 55-60. DOI: 10.1109/MSEC.2019.2947123
• Humayed, A., Lin, J., Li, F., & Luo, B. (2017, December). Cyber-Physical Systems Security — A Survey. IEEE Internet of Things Journal, 4(6), 1802-1831. DOI: 10.1109/JIOT.2017.2703172
• Hutt, R. (2016, July 12). Remote-Controlled and Crewless: Is Tthis the Cargo Ship of the Future? World Economic Forum. https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2016/07/remote-controlled-and-crewless-is-this-the-future-of-cargo-shipping/
• Imura, T. (2024, August 1). How Do Unmanned Warships Fit Into the Law of the Sea? The Marime Executive https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/how-do-unmanned-warships-fit-into-the-law-of-the-sea
• International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2016). International Convention on Standards of Training, Certification and Watchkeeping for Seafarers (STCW). https://www.imo.org/en/OurWork/HumanElement/Pages/STCW-Convention.aspx
• Johansen, T.A., & Perez, T. (2016, June). Unmanned Aerial Surveillance System For Hazard Collision Avoidance In Autonomous Shipping. 2016 International Conference on Unmanned Aircraft Systems (ICUAS), Arlington, Virginia, June 7-10, 2016. DOI: 10.1109/ICUAS.2016.7502542
• Kamolov, A., & Park, S.H. (2018). An IoT Based Smart Berthing (Parking) System for Vessels and Ports. In K. Kim and H. Kim (Eds.), Mobile and Wireless Technology 2018, ICMWT 2018, Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 513 (Singapore: Springer). DOI: 10.1007/978-981-13-1059-1_13
• Karaś, A. (2020, March). Smart Port as a Key to the Future Development of Modern Ports. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 14(1), 27-31. DOI: 10.12716/1001.14.01.01
• Karlis, T. (2018, January 29). Maritime Law Issues Related to the Operation of Unmanned Autonomous Cargo Ships. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs, 17, 119-128. DOI: 10.1007/s13437-018-0135-6
• Kavallieratos, G., Diamantopoulou, V., & Katsikas, S.K. (2020, October). Shipping 4.0: Security Requirements for the Cyber-Enabled Ship. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, 16(10), 6617–6625. DOI: 10.1109/TII.2020.2976840
• Kavallieratos, G., & Katsikas, S. (2020, September 30). Managing Cyber Security Risks of the Cyber-Enabled Ship. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 8(10), 768. DOI: 10.3390/jmse8100768
• Kavallieratos, G., Katsikas, S., & Gkioulos, V. (2019, January 31). Cyber-Attacks Against the Autonomous Ship. International Workshop on Security and Privacy Requirements Engineering (SECPRE) 2018, International Workshop on the Security of Industrial Control Systems and Cyber-Physical Systems (CyberICPS) 2018, Lecture Notes in Computer Science, 11387, 20-36. 10.1007/978-3-030-12786-2_2
• Kehoe, A., & Cecotti, M. (2021, March 23). Multiple Destroyers Were Swarmed By Mysterious 'Drones' Off California Over Numerous Nights. The Ware Zone. https://www.thedrive.com/the-war-zone/39913/multiple-destroyers-were-swarmed-by-mysterious-drones-off-california-over-numerous-nights
• Keppel Developing Autonomous Tugboat. (2019, April 10). Offshore. https://www.offshore-mag.com/rigs-vessels/article/16790823/keppel-developing-autonomous-tugboat
• Kessler, G.C. (2024, January 1). AI, Cybersecurity, and the Maritime Transportation System. The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/ai-cybersecurity-and-the-maritime-transport-system
• Klein, N., Guilfoyle, D., Karim, M.S., & McLaughlin, R. (2020, July 3). Maritime Autonomous Vehicles: New Frontiers in the Law of the Sea. International & Comparative Law Quarterly, 69(3), 719-734. DOI: 10.1017/S0020589320000226
• Kobyliński, L. (2018, March). Smart Ships—Autonomous or Remote Controlled? Scientific Journals of the Maritime University of Szczecin, 53(125), 28-34. https://yadda.icm.edu.pl/baztech/element/bwmeta1.element.baztech-f98383e2-a4e3-4786-8c5a-2ad5117234c7/c/kobylinski_Smart_ships_53-2018.pdf
• Kouicem, D.E., Bouabdallah, A., & Lakhlef, H. (2018, August 4). Internet of Things Security: A Top-Down Survey. Computer Networks, 141, 199-221. DOI: 10.1016/j.comnet.2018.03.012
• Kumar, J.S., & Patel, D.R. (2014, March). A Survey on Internet of Things: Security and Privacy Issues. International Journal of Computer Applications, 90(11), 20-26. DOI: 10.5120/15764-4454
• Kushner, D. (2013, March). The Real Story of Stuxnet. IEEE Spectrum, 50(3), 48-53. DOI: 10.1109/MSPEC.2013.6471059
• Kuzmanić, I., Kulenović, Z., & Vujović, I. (2016). Contribution to Cross-Platform Programming in Integrated Ship's Systems. 20th International Research/Expert Conference, Trends in the Development of Machinery and Associated Technology (TMT 2016), September 24 - October 1, 2016, pp. 269-272. http://www.tmt.unze.ba/zbornik/TMT2016/068.pdf
• Kygonahally, M. (2021, November 30). 5G + IoT = Opportunity. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/cognizant/2021/11/30/5g--iot--opportunity/?sh=69dfe2ed3df2
• Latarche, M. (2020, February 13). Automatic Ferry First Claimed by Kongsberg. ShipInsight. https://shipinsight.com/articles/automatic-ferry-first-claimed-by-kongsberg
• Lemieszewski, Ł., Radomska-Zalas, A., Perec, A., Dobryakova, L., & Ochin, E. (2021, February 7). GNSS and LNSS Positioning of Unmanned Transport Systems: The Brief Classification of Terrorist Attacks on USVs and UUVs. Electronics, 10(4), 401. DOI: 10.3390/electronics10040401
• Levander, O. (2017, February). Autonomous Ships on the High Seas. IEEE Spectrum, 54(2), 26-31. DOI: 10.1109/MSPEC.2017.7833502
• Li, A. (2023, October 6). Digital Piracy Returns to Sea: Protecting Autonomous Ships from Online Attacks. War on the Rocks. https://warontherocks.com/2023/10/digital-piracy-returns-to-sea-protecting-autonomous-ships-from-online-attacks/
• Li, Q. (2023, January 30). A Research on Autonomous Collision Avoidance under the Constraint of COLREGs. Sustainability, 15(3), 2446. DOI: 10.3390/su15032446
• Longo, G., Orlich, A., Musante, S., Merlo, A., & Russo, E. (2023, July). MaCySTe: A Virtual testbed for Maritime Cybersecurity. SoftwareX, 23, 101426. 10.1016/j.softx.2023.101426
• Marr, B. (2018, September 2). What is Industry 4.0? Here's A Super Easy Explanation For Anyone. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2018/09/02/what-is-industry-4-0-heres-a-super-easy-explanation-for-anyone/
• Marr, B. (2019, June 5). The Incredible Autonomous Ships Of The Future: Run By Artificial Intelligence Rather Than A Crew. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/bernardmarr/2019/06/05/the-incredible-autonomous-ships-of-the-future-run-by-artificial-intelligence-rather-than-a-crew
• MASSPorts initiative launched to develop autonomous shipping. (2020, August 6). Digital Ship. https://thedigitalship.com/news/electronics-navigation/item/6737-massports-initiative-launched-to-develop-autonomous-shipping
• Matczak, M. (2013). Intelligent Container Terminals - ITS Solutions for Seaports. Archives of Transport System Telematics, 6(2), 35-40.
• Mayger, J. (2019, October 10). Autonomous Shipping - Cyber Hazards Ahead. MarineLink. https://www.marinelink.com/news/autonomous-shipping-cyber-hazards-ahead-471587
• Mayflower Autonomous Ship Completes Historic Atlantic Crossing. (2022, July 1). The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/mayflower-autonomous-ship-completes-historic-atlantic-crossing
• Meyers, J. (2022, Spring). COLREGS and Autonomous Surface Vessels. Proceedings of the USCG Marine Safety & Security Council, 79(1), 46-52. https://www.dco.uscg.mil/portals/9/DCO%20Documents/Proceedings%20Magazine/Archive/2022/Vol79_No1_Spr22.pdf?ver=dt8USTcoaX1ac8wzW7Q2ng%3d%3d
• Ministry of Transport. (2019, March 10). Aircraft Accident Investigation Preliminary Report, Ethiopian Airlines Group B737-8 (MAX) Registered ET-AVJ, 28 NM South East of Addis Ababa, Bole International Airport, March 10, 2019. Report No. AI-01/19, Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Aircraft Accident Investigation Bureau. https://flightsafety.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/04/Preliminary-Report-B737-800MAX-ET-AVJ.pdf
• Misas, J.P., Hopcraft, R., & Tam, K. (2022, November). Future of Maritime Autonomy: Cybersecurity, Trust and Mariner's Situational Awareness. International Ship Control Systems Symposium (iSCSS 2022), Netherlands. DOI: 10.5281/zenodo.7342111
• Mitsui O.S.K.Lines (MOL). (2019, September 12). MOL Starts Demonstration Test of Vessel Image Recognition System Using AI Technology on Nippon Maru: FOCUS EYE Project, Rising to the Developing Automated Watch-keeping. MOL Press Release. https://www.mol.co.jp/en/pr/2019/19057.html
• MOL begins study on collision avoidance of autonomous ships. (2020, October 21). Digital Ship. https://thedigitalship.com/news/electronics-navigation/item/6876-mol-begins-study-on-collision-avoidance-of-autonomous-ships
• Molavi, A., Lim, G.J., Race, B., & Shi, J. (2019). Smart Ports: The Future of Maritime Transportation. THC-IT-2019 Conference & Exhibition. http://hurricane.egr.uh.edu/sites/hurricane.egr.uh.edu/files/files/2019/SMART-PORTS-THE-FUTURE-MARITIME.pdf
• Müller, H.A. (2017, December). The Rise of Intelligent Cyber-Physical Systems. IEEE Computer Magazine, 50(12), 7-9. DOI: 10.1109/MC.2017.4451221
• Munim, Z.H. (2019). Autonomous Ships: A Review, Innovative Applications and Future Maritime Business Models. Supply Chain Forum: An International Journal, 20(4), 266-279. DOI: 10.1080/16258312.2019.1631714
• Munim, Z. H., & Haralambides, H. (2022, May). Advances in Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) in Merchant Shipping. Maritime Economics & Logistics, 24(2), 181–188. DOI: 10.1057/s41278-022-00232-y
• Muthukrishnan, V. (2020, January 14). SCADA System: What is it? (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition). Electrical 4 U. https://www.electrical4u.com/scada-system/
• Norton Rose Fulbright. (2020, July). The Collision Regulations and Autonomous Shipping. Shipping Law Insights blog. https://www.nortonrosefulbright.com/en/knowledge/publications/5fedab67/the-collision-regulations-and-autonomous-shipping
• NYK to Participate in Crewless Maritime Autonomous Surface Ship Trial Project. (2020, June 15). NYK Line. https://www.nyk.com/english/news/2020/20200615_01.html
• O'Donnell, L. (2020, March 11). More Than Half of IoT Devices Vulnerable to Severe Attack. Threatpost. https://threatpost.com/half-iot-devices-vulnerable-severe-attacks/153609/
• O'Dwyer, R. (2019, June 13). Automated Mooring System Chosen for Autonomous Container System. Smart Maritime Network. https://smartmaritimenetwork.com/2019/06/13/automated-mooring-system-chosen-for-autonomous-container-ship/
• O'Rourke, R. (2024, December 20). Navy Large Unmanned Surface and Undersea Vehicles: Background and Issues for Congress. Congressional Research Service, Report R45757. https://s3.documentcloud.org/documents/24252481/navy-large-unmanned-surface-and-undersea-vehicles-background-and-issues-for-congress-dec-20-2023.pdf
• Ocean of Things (OoT). (n.d.). Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), U.S. Department of Defense (DOD). https://oceanofthings.darpa.mil/
• Oftedahl, L. (2024, June 6). Autonomous Vessels Need to be More Afraid of Dying. Norwegian SciTech News. https://norwegianscitechnews.com/2024/06/autonomous-vessels-need-to-be-more-afraid-of-maritime-accidents/
• Ong, P. (2021, August 30). Update on the U.S. Navy's MUSV and LUSV Programs. NAVALNEWS. https://www.navalnews.com/naval-news/2021/08/update-on-the-u-s-navys-musv-and-lusv-programs/
• Optimising Ship Inspections With Autonomous Drones. (2020, January 24). Vessel Performance Optimisation. https://vpoglobal.com/2020/01/24/optimising-ship-inspections-with-autonomous-drones/
• Oruc, A. (2022, January 4). Potential Cyber Threats, Vulnerabilities, and Protections of Unmanned Vehicles. Drone Systems and Applications. DOI: 10.1139/juvs-2021-0022
• Ovcina, J. (2020, May 22). De Hoop Conducts Remotely-Operated Sea Trials for Silver Origin. Offshore Energy. https://www.offshore-energy.biz/de-hoop-conducts-remotely-operated-sea-trials-for-silver-origin/
• Palbar Misas, J. D., Hopcraft, R., Tam, K., & Jones, K. (2024, March 20). Future of Maritime Autonomy: Cybersecurity, Trust and Mariner's Situational Awareness. Journal of Marine Engineering & Technology. DOI: 10.1080/20464177.2024.2330176
• Palmejar, E., & Chubb, N. (2022, May). THE LEARNING CURVE: The State of Artificial Intelligence in Maritime. Thetius/Lloyd's Register. https://thetius.com/free-report-the-learning-curve/
• Panter, J. (2013, October 18). Unmanned Ships for the Navy: A Fleet to Do What? The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/unmanned-warships-a-fleet-to-do-what
• Perera, L.P. (2018, September 25). Autonomous Ship Navigation Under Deep Learning and the Challenges in COLREGs. 37th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering ( ASME 2018), Madrid, Spain, June 17–22, 2018. DOI: 10.1115/OMAE2018-77672
• Phaneuf, B. (2019, October 16). Mayflower: How I Came to Build an Autonomous Ship to Cross the Atlantic. IBM. https://www.ibm.com/blogs/think/2019/10/rethinking-the-mayflower/
• Phaneuf, B., & Spicer, R.A. (2020, August 23). Meet the 'Mayflower': Sailing Into A New World, All Over Again. Defense One. https://www.defenseone.com/ideas/2020/08/meet-mayflower-sailing-new-world-all-over-again/167905/
• Porathe, T. (2019). Safety of Autonomous Shipping: COLREGS and Interaction Between Manned and Unmanned Ships. In M. Beer & E. Zio (Eds.), 29th European Safety and Reliability Conference, pp. 4146-4153. https://www.sintef.no/globalassets/project/hfc/sarepta/porathe-final2.pdf/
• Potamos, G., Stavrou, E., & Stavrou, S. (2024, May 27). Enhancing Maritime Cybersecurity Through Operational Technology Sensor Data Fusion: A Comprehensive Survey and Analysis. Sensors, 24(11), 3458. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3390/s24113458
• Progoulakis, I., Rohmeyer, P., & Nikitakos, N. (2021, December 5). Cyber Physical Systems Security for Maritime Assets. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 9(12), 1384. DOI: 10.3390/jmse9121384
• Rivkin, B.S. (2021, January). Unmanned Ships: Navigation and More. Gyroscopy and Navigation, 12(1), 96-108. DOI: 10.1134/S2075108721010090
• Roberts, C. (2018, August). Welcome to 2018 Full Speed to the Edge of the Abyss [video]. DEF CON 26 SE Village. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YAuRghpZyto [NOTE: "Shipping" starts at 42:52]
• Rødseth, Ø.J. (2017). From Concept to Reality: Unmanned Merchant Ship Research in Norway. 2017 IEEE Underwater Technology (UT), Busan, S. Korea, February 21-24, 2017. DOI: 10.1109/UT.2017.7890328
• Russia Moving Forward with Autonomous Navigation on Commercial Vessels. (2020, December 11). The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/russia-moving-forward-with-autonomous-navigation-on-commercial-vessels
• SAE International. (2018, June 15). Taxonomy and Definitions for Terms Related to Driving Automation Systems for On-Road Motor Vehicles. SAE Standard J3016_201806. https://www.sae.org/standards/content/j3016_201401/
• Saul, J. (2021, July 28). The Pool Of Ship Officers Is Running Dry. https://gcaptain.com/the-pool-of-ship-officers-is-running-dry/
• Schneider, G., Goetz, M., & Nissen, I. (2023, October). Design and Implementation of a Gateway Buoy for the Underwater-IoT. 1st International Workshop on Maritime Communication and Security (MarCaS), 2023 IEEE 48th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Daytona Beach, FL, USA, 2-5 October 2023. DOI: 10.1109/LCN58197.2023.10223369
• Schuler, M. (2021, July 15). Navy's Second 'Ghost Fleet' Unmanned Ship Makes Long-Range Transit from Gulf to West Coast. gCaptain. https://gcaptain.com/navy-ghost-fleet-unmanned-ship-makes-second-long-range-trip/?subscriber=true&goal=0_f50174ef03-a31fbc4401-170367962&mc_cid=a31fbc4401&mc_eid=f9a51576ea
• Schuler, M. (2021, November 19). Yara Debuts Yara Birkeland, the World's First Autonomous and Emission-Free Containership. gCaptain. https://gcaptain.com/yara-birkeland-worlds-first-autonomous-zero-emission-ship/
• Schuler, M. (2022, January 18). Japan Tests Autonomous Navigation Using Large Ferry. gCaptain. https://gcaptain.com/japan-tests-autonomous-navigation-using-large-ferry/?subscriber=true&goal=0_f50174ef03-857ce0fa1c-170367962&mc_cid=857ce0fa1c&mc_eid=f9a51576ea
• Schuler, M. (2022, August 1). Future 'USNS Apalachicola' Could Become the Navy's First Autonomous Ship. gCaptain. https://gcaptain.com/future-usns-apalachicola-could-become-the-navys-first-autonomous-ship/
• Scott, C. (2018, December 27). Why the Maritime Industry Should Embrace 3D Printing for Spare Parts. 3DPrint.com. https://3dprint.com/232678/why-the-maritime-industry-should-embrace-3d-printing/
• Scully, P. (2018). The Top 10 IoT Segments in 2018 - Based on 1,600 Real IoT Projects. IoT Analytics. https://iot-analytics.com/top-10-iot-segments-2018-real-iot-projects/
• Seals, T. (2021, September 6). IoT Attacks Skyrocket, Doubling in 6 Months. threatpost. https://threatpost.com/iot-attacks-doubling/169224/
• Sells, P. (2022, October 4). Digitalization: Maritime's Secret Weapon. The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/digitalization-maritime-s-secret-weapon
• Serpanos, D. (2018, March). The Cyber-Physical Systems Revolution. IEEE Computer Magazine, 51(3), 70-73. DOI: 10.1109/MC.2018.1731058
• Shippipedia. (n.d.). Ship Automation & Control System. http://www.shippipedia.com/ship-automation-control-system/
• Sicard, F., Hotellier, E., & Francq, J. (2022, June 27). An Industrial Control System Physical Testbed for Naval Defense Cybersecurity Research. 2022 IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy Workshops (EuroS&PW), Genoa, Italy, 6-10 June 2022. DOI: 10.1109/EuroSPW55150.2022.00049
• Singapore Launches First Drone Technology Test Bed. (2021, April 22). Digital Ship. https://thedigitalship.com/news/electronics-navigation/item/7259-singapore-launches-first-drone-technology-test-bed
• Sivaranjith. (2019, August 20). PLC vs. DCS, Difference Between PLC and DCS. AutomationForum.co. https://automationforum.co/what-are-difference-between-plc-labview-and-dcs/
• Skredderberget, A. (2018, March 14). The First Ever Zero Emission, Autonomous Ship. Yara. https://www.yara.com/knowledge-grows/game-changer-for-the-environment/
• Smart Cows and Tips for Designing Mission-Critical IoT Products. (2020). Keysight Technologies. https://www.keysight.com/us/en/assets/7018-06276/white-papers/5992-3206.pdf
• Sofge, D., Lawless, W.F., & Mittu, R. (2019, Fall). AI Bookie: Will a Self-Authorizing AI-Based System Take Control from a Human Operator? AI Magazine, 40(3), 79-84. DOI: 10.1609/aimag.v40i3.5196
• Staples, Z. & Miller, Z. (2022, September). Brilliant Machines: A Pragmatic Approach to Responsible AI. Fathom5 White Paper. https://assets-global.website-files.com/62bc6f460ac88d284aa67c29/631b9160e64bda60c6ce24a0_Brilliant%20Machines%20-%20A%20Pragmatic%20Approach%20to%20Responsible%20AI.pdf
• Statista. (2019, November 14). Internet of Things - Number of Connected Devices Worldwide, 2015-2025. https://www.statista.com/statistics/471264/iot-number-of-connected-devices-worldwide/
• Stone, M. (2022, July 26). U.S. Navy Seeks to Boost Fleet of Large Unmanned Ships. gCaptain. https://gcaptain.com/u-s-navy-seeks-to-boost-fleet-of-large-unmanned-ships
• Stouffer, K., Pillitteri, V., Lightman, S., Abrams, M., & Hahn, A. (2015, May). Guide to Industrial Control Systems (ICS) Security, rev. 2. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) Special Publication (SP) 800-82, U.S. Department of Commerce. DOI: 10.6028/NIST.SP.800-82r2
• Tam, K., & Jones, K. (2018). Cyber-Risk Assessment for Autonomous Ships. 2018 International Conference on Cyber Security and Protection of Digital Services (Cyber Security), June 11-12, 2018. DOI: 10.1109/CyberSecPODS.2018.8560690
• Taylor, I. (2020, June 15). Asia Pacific: Mitsubishi and Shin Nihonkai Ferry Partnering on Autonomous Ship Project. Bunkerspot. https://www.bunkerspot.com/asia/50718-asia-pacific-mitsubishi-and-shin-nihonkai-ferry-partnering-on-autonomous-ship-project
• Team82. (2023, January 12). Hacktivist Group Claims Ability to Encrypt an RTU Device. Claroty Team82 blog. https://claroty.com/team82/blog/hacktivist-group-claims-ability-to-encrypt-an-rtu-device?ref=blog.aesi-inc.com
• Toulas, B. (2021, December 22). Honeypot Experiment Reveals What Hackers Want From IoT Devices. BleepingComputer. https://www.bleepingcomputer.com/news/security/honeypot-experiment-reveals-what-hackers-want-from-iot-devices/
• Thompson, L. (2023, July 18). Electronic Warfare Has Become A Defining Feature Of Future Conflict. Here's Why. Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/lorenthompson/2023/07/18/electronic-warfare-has-become-a-defining-feature-of-future-conflict-heres-why/
• tpgroup's Autonomous Navigation System Completes Sea Trials. (2020, December 22). Digital Ship. https://thedigitalship.com/news/electronics-navigation/item/7018-tpgroup-s-autonomous-navigation-system-completes-sea-trials
• Tusher, H.M., Munim, Z.H., Notteboom, T.E., Kim, T.-E., & Nazir, S. (2022, January 26). Cyber Security Risk Assessment in Autonomous Shipping. Maritime Economics & Logistics, Special Issue - Autonomous Shipping. DOI: 10.1057/s41278-022-00214-0
• Urciuoli, L. (2018). An Algorithm for Improved ETAs Estimations and Potential Impacts on Supply Chain Decision Making. Procedia Manufacturing, 25, 185-193. DOI: 10.1016/j.promfg.2018.06.073
• US-CERT. (2017, July 25). CRASHOVERRIDE Malware, ICS Alert (ICS-ALERT-17-206-01). Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA), U.S, Department of Homeland Security (DHS). https://www.us-cert.gov/ics/alerts/ICS-ALERT-17-206-01
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2012, May 31). Navigation Rules: International—Inland (72 COLREGS), COMDTINST M16672.2D. U.S. Department of Homeland Security. https://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pdf/navRules/navrules.pdf
• U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). (2017, September 14). Emerging Systems at Automated Container Terminals. Operational Analysis Division, National Protection and Programs Directorate, Office of Cyber and Infrastructure Analysis (OCIA).
• U.S. Government Accountability Office (GAO). (2024, August 8). Coast Guard: Autonomous Ships and Efforts to Regulate Them. GAO-24-107059 Q&A Report to Congressional Committees. https://www.gao.gov/products/gao-24-107059
• van Dokkum, K. (2020). Ship Knowledge: Ship Design, Construction and Operation, 10th ed. Vlissingen, The Netherlands: Dokmar Maritime Publishers BV.
• van Opstall, E. (2018, September 10). SmartPort: Research and Development for the Port of Rotterdam. Innovation News Network. https://www.innovationnewsnetwork.com/smartport-port-of-rotterdam/452/
• Veitch, E., Sitompul, T.A., and Alsos, O.A. (2025, February 3). Dataset on Passenger Experience Aafter Riding an Autonomous Ferry. Data in Brief. DOI: 10.1016/j.dib.2025.111369
• Venables, M. (2022, September 2). Pathway to Autonomy. The Maritime Executive. https://maritime-executive.com/magazine/pathway-to-autonomy
• Walker, J. (2019, November 22). Autonomous Ships Timeline—Comparing Rolls-Royce, Kongsberg, Yara and More. Emerj. https://www.techemergence.com/autonomous-ships-timeline/
• Walter, M.J., Barrett, A., & Tam, K. (2023, December 8). A Red Teaming Framework for Securing AI in Maritime Autonomous Systems. arXiv. DOI: 10.48550/arXiv.2312.11500
• Walter, M.J., Barrett, A., Walker, D.J., & Tam, K. (2023, April). Adversarial AI Testcases for Maritime Autonomous Systems. AI, Computer Science and Robotics Technology, 2023(2), 1-29. DOI: 10.5772/acrt.15
• Waltman, C. (2016, November 14). Aurora: Homeland Security's Secret Project to Change How We Think About Cybersecurity. Muckrock. https://www.muckrock.com/news/archives/2016/nov/14/aurora-generator-test-homeland-security/
• Weiser, M. (1991, March). The Computer for the 21st Century. Scientific American, 265(3), 94-104. https://www.lri.fr/~mbl/Stanford/CS477/papers/Weiser-SciAm.pdf
• Weiss, J., Hood, M., Miller, N., Potorieko, C., & Michael, J.B. (2022, November). Using Machine Learning to Work Around the Operational and Cybersecurity Limitations of Legacy Process Sensors. Computer Magazine, 55(11), 106-111. DOI: 10.1109/MC.2022.3200076
• Wilhelmsen. (n.d.) Intelligent Mooring with Timm Smart Ropes. https://www.wilhelmsen.com/marine-products/ropes/intelligent-mooring-with-timm-smart-ropes/
• Will Owners of Autonomous Ships be Liable for Autonomous Mistakes? (2023, May 19). The Maritime Executive. https://maritime-executive.com/article/will-owners-of-autonomous-ships-be-liable-for-autonomous-mistakes
• Williamson, G. (2015, July 7). OT, ICS, SCADA - What's the Difference? KuppingerCole Analysts. https://www.kuppingercole.com/blog/williamson/ot-ics-scada-whats-the-difference
• Wirtz, J.J. (2023, November 15). Designing Maritime Campaigns with Unmanned Systems: Overcoming the Innovation Paradox. Center for International Maritime Security (CIMSEC. https://cimsec.org/designing-maritime-campaigns-with-unmanned-systems-overcoming-the-innovation-paradox/
• Wolsing, K., Saillard, A., Padilla, E., & Bauer, J. (2023, October). XLab-UUV -- A Virtual Testbed for Extra-Large Uncrewed Underwater Vehicles. 1st International Workshop on Maritime Communication and Security (MarCaS), 2023 IEEE 48th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Daytona Beach, FL, USA, 2-5 October 2023. DOI: 10.1109/LCN58197.2023.10223405
• Wortmann, F., & Flüchter, K. (2015, June). Internet of Things. Business & Information Systems Engineering, 57(3), 221-224. DOI: 10.1007/s12599-015-0383-3
• Xia, F., Yang, L.T., Wang, L., & Vinel, A. (2012). Internet of Things. International Journal of Communication Systems, 25, 1101-1102. DOI: 0.1002/dac.2417
• Yang, T., Feng, H., Yang, C., Sun, Z., Yang, J., Sun, F., Deng, R., & Su, Z. (2016). Cooperative Networking Towards Maritime Cyber Physical Systems. International Journal of Distributed Sensor Networks, 2016, article id 3906549. DOI: 10.1155/2016/3906549
• Yang, Y., Zhong, M., Yao, H., Yu, F., Fu, X., & Postolache, O. (2018, February). Internet of Things for Smart Ports: Technologies and Challenges. IEEE Instrumentation & Measurement Magazine, 21(1), 34-43. DOI: 10.1109/MIM.2018.8278808
• Yousaf, A., Amor, A., Kwa, P.T.H., Li, M., & Zhou, J. (2024, September). Cyber risk assessment of cyber-enabled autonomous cargo vessel. International Journal of Critical Infrastructure Protection, 46, 100695. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcip.2024.100695
• Zetter, K. (2014). Countdown to Zero Day: Stuxnet and the Launch of the World's First Digital Weapon. New York: Crown.
• Zetter, K. (2014, November 3). An Unprecedented Look at Stuxnet, the World's First Digital Weapon. WIRED. https://www.wired.com/2014/11/countdown-to-zero-day-stuxnet/
• Zhang, X., Wang, C., Jiang, L., An, L., & Yang, R. (2021, September 1). Collision-avoidance Navigation Systems for Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships: A State of the Art Survey. Ocean Engineering, 235, 109380. DOI: 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2021.109380
• Zhou, X.-Y., Liu, Z.-J., Wang, F.-W., & Wu, Z.-L. (2021, February). A System-Theoretic Approach to Safety and Security Co-Analysis of Autonomous Ships. Ocean Engineering, 222, 108569. DOI: 10.1016/j.oceaneng.2021.108569

[Top of Section | Top of Page]
Chapter 8. Strategies for Maritime Cyberdefense

• American Bureau of Shipping (ABS). (2016). Cybersecurity: Guidance Notes for the Marine & Offshore Industries. https://ww2.eagle.org/content/dam/eagle/publications/brochures/Cybersecurity_16053.pdf
• American Bureau of Shipping (ABS). (2016, September). ABS CyberSafety™ Volume 1: Guidance Notes on The Application of Cybersecurity Principles to Marine and Offshore Operations. https://ww2.eagle.org/content/dam/eagle/rules-and-guides/current/other/250_cybersafetyV1/CyberSafety_V1_Cybersecurity_GN_e.pdf
• American Bureau of Shipping (ABS). (2016, September). ABS CyberSafety™ Volume 3: Guidance Notes on Data Integrity for Marine and Offshore Operations. https://ww2.eagle.org/content/dam/eagle/rules-and-guides/current/other/252_cybersafetyV3/CyberSafety_V3_Data_Integrity_GN_e.pdf
• American Bureau of Shipping (ABS). (2016, September). ABS CyberSafety™ Volume 4: Guide for Software Systems Verification. https://ww2.eagle.org/content/dam/eagle/rules-and-guides/current/other/253_cybersafetyV4/CyberSafety_V4_SSV_Guide_e.pdf
• American Bureau of Shipping (ABS). (2016, September). ABS CyberSafety™ Volume 5: Guidance Notes on Software Provider Conformity Program. https://ww2.eagle.org/content/dam/eagle/rules-and-guides/current/other/254_cybersafetyV5/CyberSafety_V5_SPCP_GN_e.pdf
• Anaesoronye, M. (2022, September 14). Insurers See Shipping Face More Cyber threats Despite Long-term Safety Trends. BusinessDay. https://businessday.ng/insurance/article/insurers-see-shipping-face-more-cyber-threats-despite-long-term-safety-trends/
• Arampatzis, A. (2020, August 2). The Biggest Challenges and Best Practices to Mitigate Risks in Maritime Cybersecurity. Tripwire. https://www.tripwire.com/state-of-security/security-data-protection/biggest-challenges-best-practices-mitigate-risks-maritime-cybersecurity/
• Ault, R. (2022, February). The Coast Guard Needs Stronger Policy to Prevent Maritime Cyber-Attacks. Proceedings of the U.S. Naval Institute, 148(2). https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2022/february/coast-guard-needs-stronger-policy-prevent-maritime-cyber
• Bacasdoon, J., & Bolmsten, J. (2022, June). A Multiple Case Study of METI Cybersecurity Education and Training: A Basis for the Development of a Guiding Framework for Educational Approaches. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 16(2), 319-334. DOI: 10.12716/1001.16.02.15
• Ben Farah, M., Ahmed, Y., Mahmoud, H., Shah, S.A., Al-kadri, M.O., Taramonli, S., Bellekens, X., Abozariba, R., Idrissi, M., & Aneiba, A. (2024, April 25). A Survey on Blockchain Technology in the Maritime Industry: Challenges and Future Perspectives. Future Generation Computer Systems, 157, 618-637. DOI: 10.1016/j.future.2024.03.046
• Bernsen, D.S. (2022, January). Navy Cryptologic Warfare Officers Cannot Do Cyber. Proceedings of the U.S. Naval Institute, 148(1). https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2022/january/navy-cryptologic-warfare-officers-cannot-do-cyber
• Bernsen, D. (2022, August). The Navy Needs a Cyber Course Correction. Proceedings of the U.S. Naval Institute, 148(8). https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2022/august/navy-needs-cyber-course-correction
• BIMCO, International Chamber of Shipping (ICS), & Witherbys. (2023, December). Cyber Security Workbook for On Board Ship Use, 5/e. Witherbys. https://shop.witherbys.com/cyber-security-workbook-for-on-board-ship-use-5th-edition-2024/
• BIMCO et al. (2020, December 21). The Guidelines on Cyber Security Onboard Ships, version 4. https://www.bimco.org/-/media/bimco/about-us-and-our-members/publications/ebooks/guidelines-on-cyber-security-onboard-ships-v4.ashx
• BIMCO to Add Cyber Security Clause to Contracts. (2018, November 27). Digital Ship. https://thedigitalship.com/news/maritime-satellite-communications/item/5771-bimco-to-add-cyber-security-clause-to-contracts
• Bureau Veritas Group (BVG). (2018, March 13). Cyber Safety, Security and Autonomous Shipping Addressed With New Bureau Veritas Notations and Guidelines. https://group.bureauveritas.com/cyber-safety-security-and-autonomous-shipping-addressed-new-bureau-veritas-notations-and-guidelines
• Bureau Veritas Group (BVG). (2018,July). Cybersecurity Requirements for Products to be Installed On-Board Naval Ships. Rule Note NR 642 DT R00 E. https://erules.veristar.com/dy/data/bv/pdf/642-NR_2018-07.pdf
• Bureau Veritas Group (BVG). (2019, October). Guidelines for Autonomous Shipping. Guidance Note NI 641. http://erules.veristar.com/dy/data/bv/pdf/641-NI_2019-10.pdf
• Bureau Veritas Group (BVG). (2020, September). Rules on Cyber Security for the Classification of Marine Units. Rule Note NR 659 DT R01. https://erules.veristar.com/dy/data/bv/pdf/659-NR_2020-09.pdf
• Chambers, S. (2018, January 15). 69% of Danish Shipowners Hit by Cyber Crime in the Past Year. Splash247. https://splash247.com/69-danish-shipowners-hit-cyber-crime-past-year/
• Chubb, N., Finn, P., & Ng, D. (2022, March). The Great Disconect. Thetius - HFW - Cyberowl. https://www.maritimelondon.com/wp-content/uploads/2022/03/Thetius-HFW-CyberOwl-Great-Disconnect-Cyber-Risk-Management-Report.pdf
• Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) et al. (2023, October 16). Shifting the Balance of Cybersecurity Risk: Principles and Approaches for Secure by Design Software. https://www.cisa.gov/sites/default/files/2023-10/Shifting-the-Balance-of-Cybersecurity-Risk-Principles-and-Approaches-for-Secure-by-Design-Software.pdf
• Demchak, C.C., & Thomas, M.L. (2021, October 15). Can't Sail Away from Cyber Attacks: 'Sea-Hacking' from Land. War on the Rocks. https://warontherocks.com/2021/10/cant-sail-away-from-cyber-attacks-sea-hacking-from-land/
• Dobiáš, P. (2022, June). Insurance of Cyber Risks in International Transport. Masaryk University Journal of Law and Technology, 16(1): 3-36. DOI: 10.5817/MUJLT2022-1-1
• Drazovich, L., & Wetzel, S. (2023, October). Cyber Insurance in the Maritime Transportation System. 1st International Workshop on Maritime Communication and Security (MarCaS), 2023 IEEE 48th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Daytona Beach, FL, USA, 2-5 October 2023. DOI: 10.1109/LCN58197.2023.10223323
• Erstad, E., Hopcraft, R., Harish, A.V., & Tam, K. (2023, March 13). A Human-Centred Design Approach for the Development and Conducting of Maritime Cyber Resilience Training. WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s13437-023-00304-7
• Erstad, E., Ostnes, R., & Lund, M.S. (2021, March). An Operational Approach to Maritime Cyber Resilience. TransNav: The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 15(1). DOI: 10.12716/1001.15.01.01
• European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA). (2011, December 19). Analysis of Cyber Security Aspects in the Maritime Sector. https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/cyber-security-aspects-in-the-maritime-sector-1/at_download/fullReport
• European Union Agency for Cybersecurity (ENISA). (2019, November). Port Cybersecurity. https://www.enisa.europa.eu/publications/port-cybersecurity-good-practices-for-cybersecurity-in-the-maritime-sector
• Eversden, A. (2020, June 30). The Navy Aims to Install Cyber Baselines Aboard 180 Ships. DefenseNews. https://www.defensenews.com/battlefield-tech/it-networks/2020/06/30/the-navy-aims-to-install-cyber-baselines-aboard-180-ships/
• Fernando, V., & Senarathne, A. (2022, July 19). Digital Forensic Investigation Framework for Marine Industry. 2022 International Wireless Communications and Mobile Computing (IWCMC), 30 May - 03 June 2022, Dubrovnik, Croatia. DOI: 10.1109/IWCMC55113.2022.9825338
• Green, E.H., Carr, E.W., Winebrake, J.J., & Corbett, J.J. (2020, June). Blockchain Technology and Maritime Shipping: A Primer. U.S. Maritime Administration. https://www.maritime.dot.gov/sites/marad.dot.gov/files/2020-07/MARAD%20Blockchain%20Final%20Primer%20%2820200622%29.pdf
• Grobarcik, D., Loomis, W., Poznansky, M., & Smith, F. (2022, December). Wargaming to Find a Safe Port in a Cyber Storm. Atlantic Council Issue Brief. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2022/12/Wargaming-to-find-a-safe-port-in-a-cyber-storm.pdf
• Haugli-Sandvik, M., Lund, M.S., & Bjørneseth, F.B. (2024, February 7). Maritime Decision-Makers and Cyber Security: Deck Officers' Perception of Cyber Risks Towards IT and OT Systems. International Journal of Information Security. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10207-023-00810-y
• Heckman, M.R., McCready, J., Mayhew, D., & Callahan, W.L. (2018, October). Chapter 32: Toward a Maritime Cyber Security Compliance Regime. Paper presented at the SNAME Maritime Convention, Providence, Rhode Island, USA, October 2018. https://www.mrheckman.com/yahoo_site_admin/assets/docs/Issues_in_Maritime_Cyber_Security_Manuscript_CH_32-mh20170323.146124839.pdf
• Heering, D., Maennel, O.M., & Venables, A.N. (2021, July). Shortcomings in Cybersecurity Education for Seafarers. In C.G. Soares & T.A. Santos (eds.), Developments in Maritime Technology and Engineering, Vol. 1. CRC Press. DOI: 10.1201/9781003216582-6
• HM Government. (2022, August). National Strategy for Maritime Security. Presented to Parliament by the Secretary of State for Transport by Command of Her Majesty, CP 724. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1098583/national-strategy-for-maritime-security-web-version.pdf
• Hopcraft, R., Tam, K., Misas, J.D.P., Moara-Nkwe, K., & Jones, K. (2023, January-March). Developing a Maritime Cyber Safety Culture: Improving Safety of Operations. Maritime Technology and Research, 5(1): 258750. DOI: 10.33175/mtr.2023.258750
• IHS Markit. (2017, October 26). Maritime Cybersecurity Survey [Webinar]. Fairplay and BIMCO.
• IHS Markit. (2018, October 11). Maritime Cybersecurity Survey [Webinar]. Fairplay, BIMCO, and ABS.
• Ikeda, S. (2022, February 3). "Cyber War" Exception Struck Down in Merck’s Battle With Insurance Company Over NotPetya Attack. CPO Magazine. https://www.cpomagazine.com/cyber-security/cyber-war-exception-struck-down-in-mercks-battle-with-insurance-company-over-notpetya-attack/
• Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET). (2017). Code of Practice: Cyber Security for Ships. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/642598/cyber-security-code-of-practice-for-ships.pdf
• Institution of Engineering and Technology (IET). (2020). Good Practice Guide: Cyber Security for Ports and Port Systems. https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/859925/cyber-security-for-ports-and-port-systems-code-of-practice.pdf
• International Association of Classification Societies (IACS). (2010, September). On Board Use and Application of Programmable Electronic Systems. IACS Requirement E22/2006, Revision 1, 2010. http://www.iacs.org.uk/media/2055/ur_e22_rev1_pdf1391.pdf
• International Association of Classification Societies (IACS). (2022, April). Recommendation on Cyber Resilience. IACS Recommendation No. 166, correction 2. https://www.iacs.org.uk/download/10714
• International Association of Classification Societies (IACS). (2022, April). Cyber Resilience of On-board Systems and Equipment. IACS Unified Requirements (UR) E27. https://iacs.org.uk/download/14105
• International Association of Classification Societies (IACS). (2022, April). Cyber Resilience of Ships. IACS Unified Requirements (UR) E26. https://iacs.org.uk/download/14104
• International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2017, June 16). Maritime Cyber Risk Management in Safety Management Systems. Resolution MSC.428(98). https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/KnowledgeCentre/IndexofIMOResolutions/MSCResolutions/MSC.428(98).pdf
• International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2017, July 5). Guidelines on Maritime Cyber Risk Management. MSC-FAL.1/Circ.3. https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/OurWork/Security/Documents/MSC-FAL.1-Circ.3%20-%20Guidelines%20On%20Maritime%20Cyber%20Risk%20Management%20(Secretariat).pdf
• International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2018, May 25). IMO Takes First Steps to Address Autonomous Ships. http://www.imo.org/en/MediaCentre/PressBriefings/Pages/08-MSC-99-MASS-scoping.aspx
• International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2023, March 31). Guidelines for Setting up a Maritime Single Window. FAL.5/Circ.42/Rev.3. https://wwwcdn.imo.org/localresources/en/OurWork/Facilitation/FAL%20related%20nonmandatory%20documents/FAL.5-Circ.42-Rev.3.pdf
• Jacq, O., Boudvin, X., Brosset, D., Kermarrec, Y., & Simonin, J. (2018, October). Detecting and Hunting Cyberthreats in a Maritime Environment: Specification and Experimentation of a Maritime Cybersecurity Operations Centre. 2018 2nd Cyber Security in Networking Conference (CSNet), Paris, October 24-26, 2018. DOI: 10.1109/CSNET.2018.8602669
• Jones, A., Koehler, S., Jerge, M., Graves, M., King, B., Dalrymple, R., Freese, C., & Von Albade, J. (2023, february 22). BATMAN: A Brain-like Approach for Tracking Maritime Activity and Nuance. Sensors23(5), 2424. DOI: 10.3390/s23052424
• Jones Walker. (2018, October 24). Jones Walker LLP Releases Inaugural Maritime Cybersecurity Survey. https://www.joneswalker.com/insights/jones-walker-llp-releases-inaugural-maritime-cybersecurity-survey.html
• Karamperidis, S., Kapalidis, C., & Watson, T. (2021, November 23). Maritime Cyber Security: A Global Challenge Tackled Through Distinct Regional Approaches. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 9(12), 1323. DOI: 10.3390/jmse9121323
• Larsen, M.H., & Lund, M.S. (2021, October 25). Cyber Risk Perception in the Maritime Domain: A Systematic Literature Review. IEEE Access, 9, 144895-144905. DOI: 10.1109/ACCESS.2021.3122433
• Kessler, G.C. (2018, October 12). Cybersecurity and the "Return on Negligence." The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/cybersecurity-and-the-return-on-negligence
• Kessler, G.C., Craiger, J.P., & Haass, J.C. (2018, September). A Taxonomy Framework for Maritime Cybersecurity: A Demonstration Using the Automatic Identification System. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 12(3), 429-437. DOI: 10.12716/1001.12.03.01
• Kinghorn, G. (2022, April 5). Addressing Cybersecurity Readiness for the Global Shipping Industry. Security Boulevard. https://securityboulevard.com/2022/04/addressing-cybersecurity-readiness-for-the-global-shipping-industry/
• Kollars, N., Tangredi, S.J., & Demchak, C.C. (2021, February 4). The Cyber Maritime Environment: A Shared Critical Infrastructure and Trump's Maritime Cyber Security Plan. War on the Rocks. https://warontherocks.com/2021/02/the-cyber-maritime-environment-a-shared-critical-infrastructure-and-trumps-maritime-cyber-security-plan/
• Laso, P.M., Salmon, L., Bozhilova, M., Ivanov, I., Stoianov, N., Velev, G., Claramunt, C., & Yanakiev, Y. (2021, October 29). ISOLA: An Innovative Approach to Cyber Threat Detection in Cruise Shipping. In Á. Rocha, C.H. Fajardo-Toro, & J.M.R. Rodríguez, J.M.R. (eds), Developments and Advances in Defense and Security. Smart Innovation, Systems and Technologies, vol 255. Springer, Singapore. DOI: 10.1007/978-981-16-4884-7_7
• Livingstone, C. (2023, February 23). The Evolution of Class: From Lloyd's Coffee House to Modern Expertise. The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/the-evolution-of-class-from-lloyd-s-coffee-house-to-modern-expertise
• McNally, M. (2021, January 7). IMO2021, Not Just an IT Concern. MarineLink. https://www.marinelink.com/news/imo-not-concern-484360
• McSorley, B., & Harding, E. (2021, Dceember 1). Need a Role Model for Shared Cyber Incident Response? Look to the Coast Guard. Defense360. https://defense360.csis.org/need-a-role-model-for-shared-cyber-incident-response-look-to-the-coast-guard/
• Meadors, T.B., & Kessler, G.C. (2023, January 25). Improving the Speed of Cyberdefense: Seven Key Metrics. The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/improving-the-speed-of-cyberdefense-seven-key-metrics-to-know
• Mishra, B. (2020, July 20). ClassNK Releases Guidelines for Designing Cyber Security Onboard Ships. Sea News. https://seanews.co.uk/security/cyber-security/classnk-releases-guidelines-for-designing-cyber-security-onboard-ships/
• Moen, I., Oruc, A., Amro, A., Gkioulos, V. & Kavallieratos, G. (2024, July 10). Survey-Based Analysis of Cybersecurity Awareness of Turkish Seafarers. International Journal of Information Security. DOI: 10.1007/s10207-024-00884-2
• Morris, G.D.L. (2018, March 6). A Brief History of Marine Insurance. Risk & Insurance. https://riskandinsurance.com/brief-history-marine-insurance/
• Naraine, R. (2021, December 22). Research: Simulated Phishing Tests Make Organizations Less Secure. SecurityWeek. https://www.securityweek.com/research-simulated-phishing-tests-make-organizations-less-secure
• National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). (n.d.). Cybersecurity Framework Web site. https://www.nist.gov/cyberframework
• National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). (n.d.). SP-800 Series Documents. Computer Security Resource Center. https://csrc.nist.gov/publications/sp800
• National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). (2018, April 16). Framework for Improving Critical Infrastructure Cybersecurity, version 1.1. U.S. Department of Commerce. DOI: 10.6028/NIST.CSWP.04162018
• New ASTM International Standard Aims to Reduce Maritime Cyber Risk. (2020, July 30). The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/corporate/new-astm-international-standard-aims-to-reduce-maritime-cyber-risk
• Norwegian Maritime Cyber Resilience Centre. (2023, April). NORMA CYBER Annual Threat Assessment. https://www.normacyber.no/s/NORMA-Cyber_Annual-Threat-Assessment_2023_TLPWHITE.pdf
• Parham, N. (2023, Summer). Charting a Course to Cybersecurity Regulations and Compliance. Proceedings of the USCG Marine Safety & Security Council, 80(1), 11-14. https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Featured-Content/Proceedings-Magazine/
• Petta, M.C. (2021, January 10). The IMO 2021 Cyber Guidelines and the Need to Secure Seaports. The Maritime Executive. https://maritime-executive.com/editorials/the-imo-2021-cyber-guidelines-and-the-need-to-secure-seaports
• Pijpker, J., & McCombie, S.J. (2023, October). A Ship Honeynet to Gather Cyber Threat Intelligence for the Maritime Sector. 1st International Workshop on Maritime Communication and Security (MarCaS), 2023 IEEE 48th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Daytona Beach, FL, USA, 2-5 October 2023. DOI: 10.1109/LCN58197.2023.10223347
• Potamos, G., Peratikou, A., & Stavrou, S. (2021). Towards a Maritime Cyber Range Training Environment. 2021 IEEE International Conference on Cyber Security and Resilience (CSR), Rhodes, Greece, July 26-28, 2021. DOI: 10.1109/CSR51186.2021.9527904
• Pratson, L.F. (2023). Assessing Impacts to Maritime Shipping From Marine Chokepoint Closures. Communications in Transportation Research, 3(2023). DOI: 10.1016/j.commtr.2022.100083
• Pseftelis, T., & Chondrokoukis, G. (2021). A Study about the Role of the Human Factor in Maritime Cybersecurity. SPOUDAI Journal of Economics and Business, 71(1-2), 55-72. https://spoudai.unipi.gr/index.php/spoudai/article/download/2887/2724
• Ramakrishnan, P.N. (2018, February 6). Forensic Analysis of Navigation System (GPS) - A Case Study. Journal of Forensic Science and Criminal Investigation, 7(4), 555717. DOI: 10.19080/JFSCI.2018.07.555717
https://www.oatext.com/pdf/FSC-3-121.pdf
• Reva, D. (2020, October). Maritime Cyber Security: Getting Africa Ready. Institute for Security Studies, Africa Report 29. https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/ar-29.pdf
• SecurityScorecard. (2021, December). Proactive Security Measures for Global Maritime Shipping. https://securityscorecard.com/resources/maritime-shipping
• Shi, K., Xu, M., Jin, H., Qiao, T., Yang, X., & Choo, K.-K.R. (2017, September 8). A Novel Fle Carving Algorithm for National Marine Electronics Association (NMEA) Logs in GPS Forensics. Digital Investigation, 23, 11-21. DOI: 10.1016/j.diin.2017.08.004
• Staples, Z., & Sullivan, M. (2018, January 22). Cyberphysical Forensics: Lessons from the USS John S. McCain Collision. CIMSEC. https://cimsec.org/cyberphysical-forensics-lessons-from-the-uss-john-s-mccain-collision/
• Snyder, J. (2020, May 19). New LNG Carrier "Cyber Secure by Design." Riviera. https://www.rivieramm.com/news-content-hub/new-lng-carrier-lsquocyber-secure-by-designrsquo-59456
• Steady as She Goes: Three Expectations for the U.S Coast Guard Under the Biden Administration. (2021, January 8). gCaptain. https://gcaptain.com/expectations-for-us-coast-guard-under-biden-administration/
• Stegmann, M. (2022, April 15). Cyber Warfare: How to Empower Your Defense Strategy With Threat Intelligence. Security Magazine. https://www.securitymagazine.com/articles/97432-cyber-warfare-how-to-empower-your-defense-strategy-with-threat-intelligence
• Tam, K., & Jones, K. (2018). Cyber-Risk Assessment for Autonomous Ships. 2018 International Conference on Cyber Security and Protection of Digital Services (Cyber Security), June 11-12, 2018. DOI: 10.1109/CyberSecPODS.2018.8560690
• Tam, K., & Jones, K.D. (2018, August 29). Maritime Cybersecurity Policy: The Scope and Impact of Evolving Technology on International Shipping. Journal of Cyber Policy, 3(2), 147-164. DOI: 10.1080/23738871.2018.1513053
• Tam, K., & Jones, K. (2019). Forensic Readiness within the Maritime Sector. 2019 International Conference on Cyber Situational Awareness, Data Analytics And Assessment (Cyber SA), Oxford, June 3-4, 2019, pp. 1-4. DOI: 10.1109/CyberSA.2019.8899642
• The Clock is Ticking for Compliance With IMO's 2021 Cyber Security Regulations. (2020, November 12). Lloyd's Register. https://www.lr.org/en/insights/articles/imo-cyber-secuity-regulation-compliance/
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (n.d.). Port & Facility Compliance, Cyber Security Website. https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Our-Organization/Assistant-Commandant-for-Prevention-Policy-CG-5P/Inspections-Compliance-CG-5PC-/Office-of-Port-Facility-Compliance/Domestic-Ports-Division/cybersecurity/
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2015, June). United States Coast Guard Cyber Strategy. https://www.uscg.mil/Portals/0/Strategy/Cyber%20Strategy.pdf
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2017, December). Maritime Bulk Liquids Transfer, Offshore Operations, and Passenger Vessel Cybersecurity Framework Profiles, version 3. https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/CG-FAC/Documents/Cyber%20Profiles%20Overview.docx?ver=2018-01-10-143126-467
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2018, January 10). Appendix B: Offshore Operations Profile. https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/CG-FAC/Documents/Appendix%20B.%20Offshore%20Operations%20Profile.docx?ver=2018-01-10-140108-557
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2018, January 10). Appendix C: Passenger Vessel Profile. https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/CG-FAC/Documents/Appendix%20C.%20Passenger%20Vessel%20Profile.docx?ver=2018-01-10-140109-727
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2018, January 10). Appendix D: Industry Cybersecurity Processes & Profile Mappings. https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/CG-FAC/Documents/Appendix%20D.%20Industry%20Cybersecurity%20Processes%20and%20Profile%20Mappings.docx?ver=2018-01-10-143125-373
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2018, February 28). Appendix A: Maritime Bulk Liquid Transfer Profile. https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/CG-FAC/Documents/Appendix%20A.%20Maritime%20Bulk%20Liquids%20Transfer%20Profile.docx?ver=2018-01-10-141700-073
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2018, October). United States Coast Guard Maritime Commerce Strategic Outlook. https://media.defense.gov/2018/Oct/05/2002049100/-1/-1/1/USCG%20MARITIME%20COMMERCE%20STRATEGIC %20OUTLOOK-RELEASABLE.PDF
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2020). Cybersecurity Web page. https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Our-Organization/Assistant-Commandant-for-Prevention-Policy-CG-5P/Inspections-Compliance-CG-5PC-/Office-of-Port-Facility-Compliance/Domestic-Ports-Division/cybersecurity/
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2020, February 26). Guidelines for Addressing Cyber Risks at Maritime Transportation Security Act (MTSA) Regulated Facilities. Navigation and Vessel Inspection Circular (NVIC) No. 01-20. https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/5p/5ps/NVIC/2020/NVIC_01-20_CyberRisk_dtd_2020-02-26.pdf?ver=2020-03-19-071814-023
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2020, October 27). Vessel Cyber Risk Management Work Instruction (CVC-WI-027(1)). Office of Commercial Vessel Compliance (CG-CVC) Mission Management System (MMS) Work Instruction (WI). https://dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/DCO%20Documents/5p/CG-5PC/CG-CVC/CVC_MMS/CVC-WI-027(series).pdf
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2021, August). CYBER STRATEGIC OUTLOOK: The United States Coast Guard's Vision To Protect and Operate in Cyberspace. https://www.uscg.mil/Portals/0/Images/cyber/2021-Cyber-Strategic-Outlook.pdf
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2022, April 29). NVIC 01-20 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) — Updated 4/29/2022. Navigation and Vessel Inspection Circular (NVIC) No. 01-22. https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/Cyber%20NVIC%2001-20%20FAQs_updated%2029%20APR%2022.pdf
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2022, August 5). 2021 Cyber Trends and Insights in the Marine Environment. Coast Guard Cyber Command. https://www.dco.uscg.mil/Portals/9/2021CyberTrendsInsightsMarineEnvironmentReport.pdf
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2023, May 22). 2022 Cyber Trends and Insights in the Marine Environment. Coast Guard Cyber Command. https://www.uscg.mil/Portals/0/Images/cyber/2022CTIMEReport_Final.pdf
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2024, April 11). 2023 Cyber Trends and Insights in the Marine Environment. Coast Guard Cyber Command. https://www.uscg.mil/Portals/0/Images/cyber/CTIME_2023_FINAL.pdf
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2024, February 23). Reporting Breaches of Security, Suspicious Activity, Transportation Security Incidents, and Cyber Incidents. Navigation and Vessel Inspection Circular (NVIC) No. 02-24. https:www.uscg.mil/Portals/0/Images/cyber/BOS_SA_Cyber%20Reporting%20NVIC.pdf
• U.S. Coast Guard Auxiliary. (2019). USCG Risk Management Classroom Workbook. National Response Directorate.
• U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). (n.d.). Assessments: Cyber Resilience Review (CRR). Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA). https://us-cert.cisa.gov/resources/assessments
• U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). (n.d.). Cyber Security Evaluation Tool (CSET®). Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA). https://www.cisa.gov/stopransomware/cyber-security-evaluation-tool-csetr
• U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). (2015, June 26). Transportation Systems Sector Cybersecurity Framework Implementation Guidance. Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA). https://www.cisa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/tss-cybersecurity-framework-implementation-guide-2016-508v2_0.pdf
• U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). (2019, June 3). Maritime Modal Sector Coordinating Council (Maritime SCC). Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA). https://www.cisa.gov/sites/default/files/publications/maritime_scc_charter_2019_4.26.19.pdf
• U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). (2020, March 24). Critical Infrastructure Sectors. Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA). https://www.cisa.gov/critical-infrastructure-sectors
• Vijayan, J. (2019, July 9). What is an ISAC or ISAO? How These Cyber Threat Information Sharing Organizations Improve Security. CSO. https://www.csoonline.com/article/3406505/what-is-an-isac-or-isao-how-these-cyber-threat-information-sharing-organizations-improve-security.html
• Wärtsilä. (2018, October 16) Wärtsilä Opens the First International Maritime Cyber Centre of Excellence in the World. https://www.wartsila.com/media/news/16-10-2018-wartsila-opens-the-first-international-maritime-cyber-centre-of-excellence-in-the-world-2296825
• Weiss, J.G., Helleputte, C.-A., & De Cicco, D. (2020, October 22). US DOE and NIST Partner to Improve Cybersecurity in Energy, Maritime Transportation Industries. Steptoe. https://www.steptoe.com/en/news-publications/us-doe-and-nist-partner-to-improve-cybersecurity-in-energy-maritime-transportation-industries.html
• White House. (2020, December). National Maritime Cybersecurity Plan to the National Strategy for Maritime Security. https://www.hsdl.org/?view&did=848704
• White House. (2024, February 21). Executive Order on Amending Regulations Relating to the Safeguarding of Vessels, Harbors, Ports, and Waterfront Facilities of the United States. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/presidential-actions/2024/02/21/executive-order-on-amending-regulations-relating-to-the-safeguarding-of-vessels-harbors-ports-and-waterfront-facilities-of-the-united-states/
• Wingrove, M. (2020, November 5). Norway Opens Cyber Resilience Centre. Riviera. https://www.rivieramm.com/news-content-hub/news-content-hub/norway-opens-cyber-resilience-centre-61586

[Top of Section | Top of Page]
Chapter 9. Concluding Thoughts

• Afenyo, M., & Caesar, L.D. (2023, January). Maritime Cybersecurity Threats: Gaps and Directions for Future Research. Ocean & Coastal Management. DOI: 10.1016/j.ocecoaman.2023.106493
• Bailey, D. (2017, July 13). Why You Need to Follow the Steve Jobs Method and 'Work Backwards.' Inc. https://www.inc.com/dave-bailey/why-you-need-to-follow-the-steve-jobs-method-and-w.html
• Baker, R. (2023). Deep Dive: Exploring the Real-world Value of Open Source Intelligence. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. ISBN-13: 978-1119933243.
• Ben Farah, M.A., Ukwandu, E., Hindy, H., Brosset, D., Bures, M., Andonovic, I., & Bellekens, X. (2022, January 6). Cyber-Security in the Maritime Industry: A Systematic Survey of Recent Advances and Future Trends. Information, 13(1), 22. DOI: 10.3390/info13010022
• Bolbot, V., Kulkarni, K., Brunou, P., Banda, O.V., & Musharraf, M. (2022, October 30). Developments and Research Directions in Maritime Cybersecurity: A Systematic Literature Review and Bibliometric Analysis. International Journal of Critical Infrastructure Protection. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijcip.2022.100571
• Bolbot, V., Theotokatos, G., Boulougouris, E., & Vassalos, D. (2020, November). A Novel Cyber-Risk Assessment Method for Ship Systems. Safety Science, 131. DOI: 10.1016/j.ssci.2020.104908. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0925753520303052/pdfft
• Chambers, S. (2018, March 16). Maritime CEO Forum: Shipping Anywhere From 30 to 500 Years Behind the Technology Curve. Splash247. https://splash247.com/maritime-ceo-forum-shipping-anywhere-30-500-years-behind-technology-curve/
• Cyberspace Solarium Commission. (2020, March). Report of the United States of America Cyberspace Solarium Commission. https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ryMCIL_dZ30QyjFqFkkf10MxIXJGT4yv/view
• Davidson, D. (2018, March 13). Don't Try to be 'Disruptive.' To Really Have an Impact, You Need to Reverse Engineer the Future. Entrepreneur. https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/309552
• Filipoff, D. (2023, February 13). A Fleet Adrift: The Mounting Risks of the U.S. Navy's Force Development. Center for International Maritime Security (CIMSEC). https://cimsec.org/a-fleet-adrift-the-mounting-risks-of-the-u-s-navys-force-development/
• Haney, J., & Lutters, W. (2020, October). Security Awareness Training for the Workforce: Moving Beyond "Check-the-Box" Compliance. IEEE Computer Magazine, 53(10), 91-95. DOI: 10.1109/MC.2020.3001959
• Harish, A.V., Tam, K., & Jones, K. (2025, April-June). Literature Review of Maritime Cyber Security: The First Decade. Maritime Technology and Research, 7(2), 273805. DOI: 10.33175/mtr.2025.273805
• Hartmann, G.K. (1975, July 1). Mine Warfare History and Technology. Naval Surface Weapons Center, White Oak Laboratory, Technical Report NWSC/WOL/TR 75-88. https://apps.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/a017318.pdf
• Higgins, K.J. (2013, April 4). Hacking The User Security Awareness And Training Debate. DarkReading. https://www.darkreading.com/risk/hacking-the-user-security-awareness-and-training-debate
• Higgins, K.J. (2015, March 26). SSL/TLS Suffers "Bar Mitzvah Attack." DarkReading. https://www.darkreading.com/attacks-breaches/ssl-tls-suffers-bar-mitzvah-attack-
• Ileto, J. (2022, May 10). Cyber at Sea: Protecting Strategic Sealift in the Age of Strategic Competition. Modern War Institute at West Point. https://mwi.usma.edu/cyber-at-sea-protecting-strategic-sealift-in-the-age-of-strategic-competition/
• Jepsen, L.P., Meland, P.H., & Kaloudi, N. (2024, October). Increasing Maritime Cybersecurity Awareness Through Game-Based Learning. Journal of Physics: Conference Series, 2867, 2024 International Maritime and Port Technology and Development Conference, and 6th International Conference on Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships, Trondheim, Norway, Oct. 29-30, 2024. DOI: 10.1088/1742-6596/2867/1/012050
• Johnston, R.G. (2020, July). Security Maxims. Right Brain Sekurity. https://rbsekurity.com/Papers/Johnston_Security_Maxims.pdf
• Kessler, G.C. (2018, October 12). Cybersecurity and the "Return on Negligence." The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/cybersecurity-and-the-return-on-negligence
• Kessler, G.C. (2022, April 19). Information Security, the MTS of the Future, and the New Convergence. The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/information-security-the-mts-of-the-future-and-the-new-convergence
• Kessler, G.C. (2022, May 11). Cybersecurity as a Team Sport: Resiliency, Agility and Cooperation. The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/cybersecurity-as-a-team-sport-resiliency-agility-and-cooperation
• Kessler, G.C., & Zorri, D.M. (2021). Cross Domain IW Threats to SOF Maritime Missions: Implications for U.S. SOF. Joint Special Operations University (JSOU) Report 21-4. MacDill Air Force Base (FL): The JSOU Press. https://jsouapplicationstorage.blob.core.windows.net/press/12/21-4.pdf
• Kollars, N., Benson, B., & Reid, A. (2024, April 17). The Rising Ransomware Tide, Chinese Spy Cranes, and the Biden Executive Order on Maritime Cyber Security. War on the Rocks. https://warontherocks.com/2024/04/the-rising-ransomware-tide-chinese-spy-cranes-and-the-biden-executive-order-on-maritime-cyber-security/
• Lawrence, C. (2022, September 28). Securing the Seas When the Maritime Industry's Drowning. TNW. https://thenextweb.com/news/martime-industry-drowning-from-cybercriminal-threat
• Larsen, B.J.P. (2022, June). Maritime Cybersecurity Shipping Industry Plan. Unpublished M.S. Thesis, University of Skövde. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.29320.29441
• Loomis, W., Singh, V.V., Kessler, G.C., & Bellekens, X. (2021, October). RAISING THE COLORS: Signaling for Cooperation on Maritime Cybersecurity. Cyber Statecraft Initiative, Scowcroft Center for Strategy and Security, Atlantic Council. https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Raising-the-colors-Signaling-for-cooperation-on-maritime-cybersecurity.pdf (see also https://www.atlanticcouncil.org/in-depth-research-reports/report/cooperation-on-maritime-cybersecurity-a-system-of-systems/
• Lundquist, E.H. (2011, January 27). Project Evergreen. Defense Media Network. https://www.defensemedianetwork.com/stories/project-evergreen/
• McDougall, A. (2023, June 19). Time to Take a New Approach to Maritime Cybersecurity. The Maritime Executive. https://maritime-executive.com/editorials/time-to-take-a-new-approach-to-maritime-cybersecurity
• Meadors, T.M. (2022, September). Cyber Warfare is a Navy Mission. Proceedings of the U.S. Naval Institute, 148(9). https://www.usni.org/magazines/proceedings/2022/september/cyber-warfare-navy-mission
• Meadors, T.M. (2023, February 22). Paralyzed at the Pier: Schrödinger's Fleet and Systemic Naval Cyber Compromise. Center for International Maritime Security (CIMSEC. https://cimsec.org/paralyzed-at-the-pier-schrodingers-fleet-and-systemic-naval-cyber-compromise/
• Oruç, A. (2022, June). Ethical Considerations in Maritime Cybersecurity Research. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 16,(2), 309-318. DOI: 10.12716/1001.16.02.14
• Oruc, A., Chowdhury, N., & Gkioulos, V. (2024, January 3). A Modular Cyber Security Training Programme for the Maritime Domain. International Journal Information Security. DOI: 10.1007/s10207-023-00799-4
• Oruc, A., Chowdhury, N., Gkioulos, V., & Katsikas, S.K. (2024, December). Evaluation of Maritime Cyber Security (MarCy) Training Programme. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 18(4): 743-763. DOI: 10.12716/1001.18.04.01
• Palmer, D. (2019, May 17). What is GDPR? Everything You Need to Know About the New General Data Protection Regulations. ZDNet. https://www.zdnet.com/article/gdpr-an-executive-guide-to-what-you-need-to-know/
• Percival, T. (2021, January 18). Proactive vs. Reactive Cyber Security Strategies in Maritime. Hellenic Shipping News. https://www.hellenicshippingnews.com/proactive-vs-reactive-cyber-security-strategies-in-maritime/
• Roer, K. (2017, June 1). A Culture of Security, Not of Blame. Information Security Magazine. https://www.infosecurity-magazine.com/blogs/culture-security-not-blame/
• Rovner, J. (2023, March 13). The Liberal Cyber Order. War on the Rocks. https://warontherocks.com/2023/03/the-liberal-cyber-order/
• Schauer, S., Stamer, M., Bosse, C., Pavlidis, M., Mouratidis, H., König, S., & Papastergiou, S. (2017). An Adaptive Supply Chain Cyber Risk Management Methodology. In Kersten, Wolfgang Blecker, Thorsten Ringle, Christian M. (Ed.), Digitalization in Supply Chain Management and Logistics: Smart and Digital Solutions for an Industry 4.0 Environment, Hamburg International Conference of Logistics (HICL), Vol. 23, ISBN 978-3-7450-4328-0, Berlin, pp. 405-425. DOI: 10.15480/882.1491
• Shang, W., Gong,, T., Chen,, C., Hou, J., & Zeng, P. (2019, March 14). Information Security Risk Assessment Method for Ship Control System Based on Fuzzy Sets and Attack Trees. Security and Communication Networks, 2019, article 3574675. DOI: 10.1155/2019/3574675. https://downloads.hindawi.com/journals/scn/2019/3574675.pdf
• Shepard, S. (2022). Reverse-Engineering the Future: A Prescription for Change Leadership. Kindle Direct Publishing. https://www.amazon.com/Reverse-Engineering-Future-Prescription-Change-Leadership-ebook/dp/B09SVVN7F3/ref=sr_1_1
• Sørensen, A.J., Johansen, G., Johansen, T.A., Ludvigsen, M., & Sivertsen, E.S. (2023, November 14). Who Should Collect, Manage and Have Access to Data From the Oceans? Norwegian SciTech News. https://norwegianscitechnews.com/2023/11/who-should-collect-manage-and-have-access-to-data-from-the-oceans/
• Stoker, G., Greer, J., Clark, U., & Chiego, C. (2023, April). Considering Maritime Cybersecurity at a Non-Maritime Education and Training Institution. Cybersecurity Pedagogy and Practice Journal, 2(1), 66-76. http://iscap.us/papers/misc/countdownloads/5775
• Stoltz, B. (2019, September 7). A New California Privacy Law Could Affect Every U.S. Business — Will You be Ready? Forbes. https://www.forbes.com/sites/allbusiness/2019/09/07/california-consumer-privacy-act-could-affect-your-business
• Tam, K., Moara-Nkwe, K., & Jones, K.D. (2021, January-March). The Use of Cyber Ranges in the Maritime Context: Assessing Maritime-Cyber Risks, Raising Awareness, and Providing Training. Maritime Technology and Research, 3(1). DOI: 10.33175/mtr.2021.241410
• Tvergrov, E.A. (2023, March 19). What Do You Do if a Hacker Takes Control of Your Ship? The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/editorials/what-do-you-do-if-a-hacker-takes-control-of-your-ship
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2012, May 31). Navigation Rules: International—Inland (72 COLREGS), COMDTINST M16672.2D. U.S. Department of Homeland Security. https://www.navcen.uscg.gov/pdf/navRules/navrules.pdf
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2020, June 28). Marine Safety Alert 06-19 Cyber (07/2019). https://homeport.uscg.mil/Lists/Content/DispForm.aspx?ID=50460
• U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS). (2024, July 9). Coast Guard Should Take Additional Steps to Secure the Marine Transportation System Against Cyberattacks. Office if Inspector general (OIG), Report OIG-24-37. https://www.oig.dhs.gov/sites/default/files/assets/2024-07/OIG-24-37-Jul24.pdf
• U.S. Naval Institute (USNI). (2022, December 21). Cyber Power is Essential to Sea Power. The Proceedings Podcast. Panelists CDR Robert "Jake" Bebber, USN, and LCDR Tyson B. Meadors, USN, hosted by Bill Hamblet. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6zT_UdJSf3Q [video]
• U.S. Navy. (2019, March). Cybersecurity Readiness Review. Secretary of the Navy. https://www.wsj.com/public/resources/documents/CyberSecurityReview_03-2019.pdf
• Ventikos, N.P., Koimtzoglou, A., Michelis, A., Stouraiti, A., Podimatase, V., & Potamos, G. (2023, September). Application of Bayesian Networks for Real Time Cyber Security Crisis Classification in Passenger Ships. The 33rd European Safety and Reliability Conference (ESREL 2023), Southampton, UK, September 3-8, 2023. DOI: 10.3850/978-981-18-8071-1_P339-cd
• Zorri, D.M., & Kessler, G.C. (2021, September 8). Cyber Threats and Choke Points: How Adversaries are Leveraging Maritime Cyber Vulnerabilities for Advantage in Irregular Warfare. Modern War Institute at West Point. https://mwi.usma.edu/cyber-threats-and-choke-points-how-adversaries-are-leveraging-maritime-cyber-vulnerabilities-for-advantage-in-irregular-warfare/

[Top of Section | Top of Page]

---

Ancillary Material

Author Podcasts/Interviews/Presentations Maritime Cyber Newsletters, Blogs, and Web Sites Maritime Journals GPS/GNSS- and PNT-Related Sites Ship Tracking/AIS Aggregation and Other Maritime Intel Web Sites Papers Related to Securing AIS and AIS/GPS Research

Author Podcasts/Interviews/Presentations

• Gary was interviewed by Rob Aragao on the "Reimagining Cyber: Real world perspectives ion cybersecurity" podcast, released on 16 April 2025. Rob and Gary spoke about some of the current issues related to maritime cyber, from GPS spoofing to autonomous vessels.
• Gary gave a talk about AIS applications, protocol internals, and spoofing at the 2024 CyberBoat Challenge (12/17/2024).
• Gary attended the Port of San Diego's Senior Leadership Seminar as part of Fleet Week 2024, and gave a talk titled "AI Implications for Maritime Cyber Security" (11/07/2024).
• Gary's presentation — led by colleague Gian Pili in Gary's absence — titled "AIS Spoofing: A Tutorial for Researchers" was given at the 2nd IEEE LCN Special Track on Maritime Communication and Security (MarCaS) (10/10/2024).
• Gary was interviewed by Andrzej Gab in his webcast, titled "Empowering Maritime Leadership with Cyber Resilience" (09/25/2024). During the webcast, we discussed cybersecurity awareness among management as a key component of an information security strategy, cyber risk management in the maritime sector, the application of AI in MTS cybersecurity, and global knowledge and experience sharing within the maritime industry.
• Gary co-presented, with Nick Haltmeyer (and Duncan Woodbury), a talk titled "Don’t Ship Your Bridges!" in the Maritime Security (MARSEC) track of the ICS Village at DEFCON 32 (08/10/2024). See also our GitHub repository.
• Gary joined colleagues Giangiuseppe Pili in Alessio Armenzoni on Andrej Matisak's "The Global Agora" podcast, "How is Russia Moving Oil Through the Mediterranean and What to Possibly Do About It" (07/29/2024).
• Gary participated in two exciting events in the Netherlands in June 2024, in conjunction with colleagues at the NHL Stenden University Maritime IT Security program. On June 3, the team ran a tabletop cyber exercise for Ministerie van Infrastructuur en Waterstaat at their Cyberweerbaarheidsconferentie (Cyber resiliency conference) in Utrecht. The exercise focused on a GPS spoofing incident involving a ship and a GPS jamming incident involving a commercial airliner; Gary had the privilege and honor to make a presentation about GPS spoofing and jamming in the maritime and aviation sectors, including the impact on AIS and ADS-B. On June 5, Gary gave a guest lecture on maritime cybersecurity challenges to students, staff, and invited guests from industry at the Maritiem Instituut Willem Barentsz on the beautiful island of Terschelling.
• Gary participated in the Maritime Cyber Security and Resilience Symposium, held at IMO Headquarters in London, UK, and sponsored by the University of Plymouth's Cyber-SHIP Lab (November 1-2, 2023). He was a member of the "Current and future directions in Maritime Cyber Security" panel and chaired the "Roadmaps and models" session.
• Gary was the keynote speaker at the NORMA Cyber Conference & Member Council in Bergen, Norway on October 25, 2023.
• Gary hosted a Webinar titled "Exploitation of Unpatched Systems" for the National Motor Freight Traffic Association (NMFTA) (10/11/2023).
• Gary was quoted in the article "How to Play Smart Defense" by K. Kavin (Trade Only, September 24, 2023), at https://www.tradeonlytoday.com/post-type-feature/how-to-play-smart-defense
• Gary gave a talk titled "Five (or More) Maritime Cybersecurity Challenges" in the Maritime track of the ICS Village at DEFCON 31 (08/11/2023).
• Gary presented a Control System Cyber Security Association International [(CS)²AI] Online seminar titled, "Geopolitical Issues of GPS/AIS Spoofing and Jamming " (07/12/2023).
• Gary was a member of a panel on "Current Cybersecurity Trends - Cyber Workforce Development Strategies" as part of a Current Cybersecurity Trends and Global Threats virtual seminar, sponsored by the Georgia Tech Center for International Business Education & Research (GT CIBER), Global USA Business Forum (GUBF), and USA India Business Summit (UIBS) (06/29/2023).
• Gary was a member of the Maritime Cybersecurity panel at the Control System Cyber Security Association International [(CS)²AI] Online Symposium event, "Planes, Trains & Automobiles, and Boats Too!" (05/17/2023).
• Gary chaired a panel session about "Securing Ports" and gave a talk on "GPS/AIS Spoofing" at the 2nd Annual South Coast Cyber Summit in Beaufort, SC (03/20/2023).
• Gary gave a (virtual) talk on "ATON/VTS Cybersecurity" at the Canadian Coast Guard's Industry Day — Maritime Cybersecurity from Ship to Shore (03/09/2023).
• Gary was quoted in the following article: Careless, J. (2022, December 17). Upgrading Maritime Cybersecurity in a Dangerous World. Transport Security International. https://www.tsi-mag.com/upgrading-maritime-cybersecurity-in-a-dangerous-world/
• Gary Kessler participated in Panel 4 - Innovation to Meet Maritime Challenges, at the Maritime Security Challenges Conference (MSC 2022), Vancouver, BC, Canada (11/16/2022)
• Gary gave two talks at the University of Plymouth's Cyber-SHIP Annual Symposium, held at IMO Headquarters in London (10/26-27/2022) — Geopolitical Implications Of the Weaponization of GPS and AIS in the Maritime Domain and The Human Element: Strategies to Combat the Maritime Cyber Workforce Problem (with Will Loomis)
• Gary was a keynote speaker at the University of North Carolina, Wimington's 5th Annual Cybersecurity Awareness Conference (10/12-13/2023).
• Gary Kessler and A Historical View Of Information-Sharing (The Natural Curiosity Project Episode 167, hosted by Steven Shepard, 03/24/2022)
• Gary was a keynote speaker and part of the Fathom5 team at Hack the Port 2022 in Ft. Lauderdale, FL, 02/2022.
• Charting Course: Next Steps for Maritime Cybersecurity With Allies and Partners, an Atlantic Council's Cyber Statecraft Initiative event with an introduction by The Hon. Angus King (I-Maine), and a panel session with RADM John W. Mauger (Asst. Commandant for Prevention Policy (CG-5P), USCG), Gary Kessler (Non-Resident Senior Fellow, Atlantic Council), Josie Long (Cyber Security Consultant, MITRE), and Sean Kline (Dir. of Maritime Affairs, Chamber of Shipping of America), moderated by Nina Kollars (Assoc. Professor, Cyber and Innovation Policy Institute (CIPI), U.S. Naval War College) (12/14/2021)
• Maritime Cybersecurity Interview with Mr. William Loomis and Dr. Gary Kessler, a ThinkJSOU podcast moderated by Dr. Mark Grzegorzewski (12/02/2021)
• Designer's Series: Balancing Cybersecurity and Autonomy in the Maritime Domain, an interview with William Loomis, Dr. Gary C. Kessler, and Michael Pyne, hosted by Nicolé Mullins (Teasley), at HACKtheMACHINE (11/29/2021)
• Maritime Cybersecurity Panel with Stephen Mills (Royal Caribbean), Gary C. Kessler, and Daniel E. Turissini (Marine Technology Society), moderated by Lori Barfield and hosted by the Los Angeles Chapter of the Information Systems Security Association (ISSA-LA).
• Sea Control 293 - Cyber Threats & Chokepoints with Dr. Diane Zorri and Dr. Gary Kessler (Center for International Maritime Security (CIMSEC), hosted by Anna McNeil, 11/14/2021)
• Testimony before the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Transportation & Infrastructure hearing on "The Evolving Cybersecurity Landscape: Industry Perspectives on Securing the Nation's Infrastructure" by Dr. Gary C. Kessler (11/04/2021) [Written testimony || Video of complete hearing (GCK's opening statement at 38:17-43:11)]
• Hack The Sea 3.0 Village/DEF CON 29 (08/2021)
• AIS Tools Demo (Notes from DEF CON)
• AIS Proctocol Internals (Abridged) (Notes from Hack the Sea)
• Cybersecurity Update with Gary Kessler (The Natural Curiosity Project, hosted by Steven Shepard, 06/21/2021)
• "GNSS/AIS Spoofing: Issues in Maritime CyberSecurity." Video presentation by Gary Kessler at Maritime Cyber Security 2021 virtual event (06/17/2021).
• Gary was quoted in the following article: Satira, B. (2021, May 12). Navigating the Waters of Maritime Cybersecurity. Help Net Security. https://www.helpnetsecurity.com/2021/05/12/maritime-cybersecurity/
• An Interview With Gary Kessler on the National Maritime Cybersecurity Plan (The Natural Curiosity Project Episode 118, hosted by Steven Shepard, 02/18/2021)
• An Interview with Gary Kessler on Maritime Cybersecurity (Cybersecurity Career Intelligence, hosted by Fred Scholl, Quinnipiac University, 11/02/2020)
• An Interview With Gary Kessler on the Maritime Ransomware Attacks (The Natural Curiosity Project, hosted by Steven Shepard, 10/05/2020)
• Hack The Sea 2.0 Village at DEF CON 28 (08/2020)
• Build A Raspberry AIS
• GPS: AIS Spoofing Attacks and Some Tools
• Protecting AIS with Public Key Crypto Methods
• An Interview with Gary Kessler, Andrew Lee (Jones Walker), and LT Kevin Kuhn (USCG) on cyberattack liabilities for maritime companies (IN THE KNOW Podcast 7: Planning for Real-World Cyber Threats, The Maritime Executive, hosted by Paul Benecki, 01/06/2019)

[Top of Section | Top of Page]

Maritime Cyber Newsletters, Blogs, and Web Sites

• Center for International Maritime Security (CIMSEC)
• Channel - 16 Maritime Security News
• Coast Guard Maritime Industry Cybersecurity Resource Center (USCG/CISA/MARAD)
• CSO Alliance
• Cybersecurity & Infrastructure Security Agency (CISA) National Cyber Awareness System
• Digital Ship newsletter
• DNV cyber insights
• Dryad Global Channel - 16 Maritime Security News
• gCaptain
• Hellenic Shipping News
• JOC.com Maritime News
• Lloyd's List
• MarineLink
• Maritime dat Newsletter
• Maritime Domain Awareness Trade - Gulf of Guinea (MDAT-GoG)
• The Maritime Executive
• Maritime Journal
• Maritime Logistics Professional
• Maritime Transportation System Information Sharing and Analysis Center (MTS-ISAC)
• MCYSEKA - Maritime Cyber Security Knowledge Archive
• Navigation Outlook
• Pole Star
• Resilient Navigation and Timing (RNT) Foundation
• Riviera Maritime Media
• SAFETY4SEA
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) Maritime Commons
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG) Maritime Cyber Readiness Branch (MCRB)
• U.S. Naval Institute (USNI) News
• Vessel Performance Optimisation
• Voyage Worldwide

[Top of Section | Top of Page]

Maritime Journals

• International Journal of Maritime Crime & Security
• Journal of Marine Science & Engineering
• Journal of Marine Science & Technology (Digital Commons)
• Journal of Marine Science & Technology (JASNAOE)
• NAVIGATION: Journal of the Institute of Navigation
• OUR SEA: International Journal of Maritime Science & Technology
• The Journal of Navigation
• Transactions on Maritime Science
• TransNav, the International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation
• WMU Journal of Maritime Affairs

[Top of Section | Top of Page]

GPS/GNSS- and PNT-Related Sites

• CISA Positioning, Navigation, and Timing page
• GPSJam's Daily Maps of GPS Interference
• GPSPATRON
• International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities (IALA) — Positioning , Navigation and Timing (PNT) page
• Interreg Baltic Sea Region R-Mode Baltic Project
• MarRINav: Improving the Integrity and Resilience of Maritime Navigation
• Resilient Navigation and Timing Foundation
• SkAI Data Services' Live GPS Spoofing and Jamming Tracker Map (GPSwise)
• The Institute of Navigation (ION)
• The Royal Institute of Navigation (RIN)
• USCG Navigation Center — GPS Problem Report Status page

[Top of Section | Top of Page]

Ship Tracking/AIS Aggregation and Other Maritime Intel Web Sites

• Advanced Dataset of Maritime cyber Incidents ReleAsed for Literature (ADMIRAL)
• Maritime Computer Emergency Response Team (M-CERT)
• AISHub
• Track The Worlds Vessels via Websocket (aisstream.io)
• CruiseMapper
• Equasis (Electronic Quality Shipping Information System)
• FleetMon
• MarineTraffic
• Maritime Cyber Attack Database (MCAD), NHL Stenden University of Applied Sciences
• My Ship Tracking
• Pole Star
• Ship Tracker
• Shipfinder
• ShipMap -- Global shipping, 2012
• Shipspotting.com
• ShipXplorer
• Submarine Telecoms Forum Undersea Cable Map
• TankerTrackers.com
• Vessel Finder
• vesseltracker.com

[Top of Section | Top of Page]

Papers Related to Securing AIS and AIS/GPS Research

One area of Gary's research is related to AIS, AIS security vulnerabilities and exploits, and methods with which to secure AIS. Although not a specific theme of the book, a secure AIS is integral to a secure MTS. In that spirit, here are some papers specifically related to AIS and GNSS security, as well as research into AIS in maritime:

• Al-Khalidi, M., Al-Zaidi, R., Ali, T., Khan, S., & Bashir, A.K. (2025, January). AI-Optimized Elliptic Curve with Certificate-Less Digital Signature for Zero Trust Maritime Security. Ad Hoc Networks, 166, 103669. DOI: 10.1016/j.adhoc.2024.103669
• Alamleh, H., & Karabacak, B. (2024, October). Exploring the Security Landscape of Underwater Positioning and Navigation Systems: An Attack Surface Analysis. 2nd International Special Track on Maritime Communication and Security (MarCaS), 2024 IEEE 49th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Caen, France, 8-10 October 2024. DOI: 10.1109/LCN60385.2024.10639769
• Anderson, J., Lo, S., & Walter, T. (2022, January). Cryptographic Ranging Authentication with TESLA, Rapid Re-keying, and a PRF. 2022 International Technical Meeting of The Institute of Navigation, Long Beach, California, pp. 43-55. DOI: 10.33012/2022.18226
• Anderson, J., Lo, S., & Walter, T. (2022, January). Efficient and Secure Use of Cryptography for Watermarked Signal Authentication. 2022 International Technical Meeting of The Institute of Navigation, Long Beach, California, pp. 68-82. DOI: 10.33012/2022.18228
• Anderson, J., Lo, S., & Walter, T. (2024, September). Authentication Security of Combinatorial Watermarking for GNSS Signal Authentication. NAVIGATION, 71(3). DOI: 10.33012/navi.655
• Androjna, A., Brcko, T., Pavic, I., & Greidanus, H. (2020, October 20). Assessing Cyber Challenges of Maritime Navigation. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 8(10), 776. DOI: 10.3390/jmse8100776
• Androjna, A., Pavić, I., Gucma, L., Vidmar, P., & Perkovič, M. (2023, December 19). AIS Data Manipulation in the Illicit Global Oil Trade. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 12(1), 6. DOI: 10.3390/jmse12010006
• Androjna, A., & Perkovič, M. (2021, September). Impact of Spoofing of Navigation Systems on Maritime Situational Awareness. Transactions on Maritime Science, 10(2). DOI: 10.7225/toms.v10.n02.w08
• Androjna, A., Perkovič, M., & Pavic, I. (2021, May). Cyber Security Challenges for Safe Navigation at Sea. 4th Annual Baška GNSS Conference: Technologies, Techniques and Applications Across PNT and The 1st Workshop on Smart, Blue and Green Maritime Technologies, Baška, Krk Island, Croatia. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Andrej-Androjna-3/publication/358676229_CYBER_SECURITY_CHALLENGES_FOR_SAFE_NAVIGATION_AT_SEA/links/620ea07d4be28e145c9b6dcb/CYBER-SECURITY-CHALLENGES-FOR-SAFE-NAVIGATION-AT-SEA.pdf
• Androjna, A., Perkovič, M., Pavic, I., & Mišković, J. (2021, May). AIS Data Vulnerability Indicated by a Spoofing Case-Study. Applied Sciences, 11(11), 5015. DOI: 10.3390/app11115015
• Arumugam, M., & Parasuraman, K. (2024, January 18). Whale Optimized Routing Path Selection and 128 Bit Secured Key Management for Maritime Safety. International Journal of Naval Architecture and Ocean Engineering. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijnaoe.2024.100584
• Aziz, A., Tedeschi, P., Sciancalepore, S., & Di Pietro, R. (2020, August 7). SecureAIS - Securing Pairwise Vessels Communications. 2020 IEEE Conference on Communications and Network Security (CNS), 29 June-1 July, Avignon, France. DOI: 10.1109/CNS48642.2020.9162320
• Bahder, T.B. (2004, December). Quantum Positioning System. Proceedings of the 36th Annual Precise Time and Time Interval Systems and Applications Meeting, Washington, D.C., pp. 53-76. https://www.ion.org/publications/abstract.cfm?articleID=13846
• Balduzzi, M., Pasta, A., & Wilhoit, K. (2014, December). A Security Evaluation of AIS Automated Identification System. 30th Annual Computer Security Applications Conference (ACSAC '14), New Orleans, Louisiana, December 8-12, 2014, pp. 436-445. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.694.7968&type=pdf
• Balduzzi, M., Wilhoit, K., & Pasta, A. (2014, December). A Security Evaluation of AIS. Trend Micro Research Paper. https://www.trendmicro.com/cloud-content/us/pdfs/security-intelligence/white-papers/wp-a-security-evaluation-of-ais.pdf
• Baker, R. (2021, August 16). Creating an AIS Pi for Maritime Research. wondersmith_rae blog. https://wondersmithrae.medium.com/creating-an-ais-pi-for-maritime-research-5e6f754e541c
• Baker, R. (2021, August 27). How to Install OpenCPN on Your AIS Raspberry Pi for Maritime Research. wondersmith_rae blog. https://wondersmithrae.medium.com/how-to-install-opencpn-on-your-ais-raspberry-pi-for-maritime-research-c6d3da5eb5a6
• Batavier, G. (2024, January 9). The Red Sea Crisis: Tracking the Volatile Security Situation. Spire blog. https://spire.com/blog/maritime/the-red-sea-crisis-tracking-the-volatile-security-situation/
• Berbić, I, Stupalo, V., Kavran, N., & Bukljaš, M. (2023, January). Overview of Machine Learning Methods in Maritime Traffic Monitoring Based on Automatic Identification System. Transportation Research Procedia, 73, 220-226. DOI: 10.1016/j.trpro.2023.11.911
• Blanco, J. (2019, December 5). C2 Over Maritime AIS and Commercial Aggregation [video]. DEF CON 27 Hack the Sea Village. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wRWh6FVIFeo
• Cabrera, F., Molina, N., Tichavska, M., & Araña, V. (2016, July). Automatic Identification System Modular Receiver for Academic Purposes. Radio Science, 51(7), 1038–1047. DOI: 10.1002/2015RS005895
• Campbell, J.N.A., Isenor, A.W., & Dais Ferreira, M. (2022, September 22). Detection of Invalid AIS Messages Using Machine Learning Techniques. Procedia Computer Science, 205, 229-238. DOI: 10.1016/j.procs.2022.09.024
• Chen, M.-Y., & Wu, H.-T. (2023, January). An Automatic-Identification-System-Based Vessel Security System. IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, 19(1), 870-879. DOI: 10.1109/TII.2021.3139348
• Chen, X., Wei, C., Zhou, G., Wu, H., Wang, Z., & Biancardo, S.A. (2022, September 16). Automatic Identification System (AIS) Data Supported Ship Trajectory Prediction and Analysis via a Deep Learning Model. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 10(9), 1314. DOI: 10.3390/jmse10091314
• Chew, C., Roberts, T. M., & Lowe, S. (2023, December). RFI Mapped by Spaceborne GNSS-R Data. NAVIGATION, 70(4). DOI: 10.33012/navi.618
• Critchley-Marrows, J., & Verspieren, Q. (2023, July). Ensuring PNT Resilience: A Global Review of Navigation Policies and Roadmaps. Science, Technology and Innovation Governance (STIG) Education Programme, Graduate School of Public Policy, The University of Tokyo. https://rntfnd.org/wp-content/uploads/Resilient_PNT_Policy_Report_FINAL_Univ-Tokyo-and-Sydney.pdf
• Clements, Z., Goodridgey, I., Ellisz, P., Murriany, M.J., & Humphreys, T.E., (2024, January). Demonstration of Single-Satellite GNSS Spoofer Geolocation. The 2024 ION ITM Conference, Long Beach, CA, January 22-26, 2024. http://radionavlab.ae.utexas.edu/wp-content/uploads/clements-DemoSpooferGeo.pdf
• Duan, Y., Huang, J., Lei, J., Kong, L., Lv, Y., Lin, Z., Chen, G., & Kha, M.K. (2023, February). AISChain: Blockchain-Based AIS Data Platform With Dynamic Bloom Filter Tree. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, 24(2), 2332-2343. DOI: 10.1109/TITS.2022.3188691
• Erwin, S. (2022, August 17). Commercial Geospatial Technologies That Detect GPS Disruptions to be Tested in Military Exercises. SpaceNews. https://spacenews.com/commercial-geospatial-technologies-that-detect-gps-disruptions-to-be-tested-in-military-exercises/
• Ford, J.H., Peel, D., Kroodsma, D., Hardesty, B.D., Rosebrock, U., & Wilcox, C. (2018). Detecting Suspicious Activities at Sea Based on Anomalies in Automatic Identification Systems Transmissions. PLoS ONE, 13(8), e0201640. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0201640
• FrontierSI. (2025, January 25). State of the Market Report, Low Earth Orbit Positioning Navigation and Timing – 2024 Edition. https://frontiersi.com.au/wp-content/uploads/2025/01/FrontierSI-State-of-Market-Report-LEO-PNT-2024-Edition-v1.1.pdf
• Gamage, C., Dinalankara, R., Samarabandu, J., & Subasinghe, A. (2023, Dceember). A Comprehensive Survey on the Applications of Machine Learning Techniques on Maritime Surveillance to Detect Abnormal Maritime Vessel Behaviors. WMU Journal on Maritime Affairs, 22, 447–477. DOI: 10.1007/s13437-023-00312-7
• Goward, D. (2025, January 21). UK Leading the West in PNT with Clocks, eLoran and Quantum Research. GPS World. https://www.gpsworld.com/uk-leading-the-west-in-pnt-with-clocks-eloran-and-quantum-research/
• Goudosis, A., & Katsikas, S.K. (2019, June 14). Towards a Secure Automatic Identification System (AIS). Journal of Marine Science and Technology, 24, 410-423. DOI: 10.1007/s00773-018-0561-3
• Goudosis, A., & Katsikas, S.K. (2020, June). Secure AIS with Identity-Based Authentication and Encryption. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 14(2). DOI: 10.12716/1001.14.02.03
• Goudosis, A., & Katsikas, S.K. (2022, June). Secure Automatic Identification System (SecAIS): Proof-of-Concept Implementation. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 10(6), 805. DOI: 10.3390/jmse10060805
• Goudossis, A., Kostis, T., & Nikitakos, N. (2012). Automatic Identification System Stated Requirements for Naval Transponder Security Assurance. In A. Goudossis, T. Kostis, & N. Nikitakos (Eds.), 2nd International Conference on Applications of Mathematics and Informatics in Military Sciences (AMIMS), Vari, Greece. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Athanasios-Goudosis/publication/280573426_Automatic_Identification_System_Stated_Requirements_for_Naval_Transponder_Security_Assurance/links/5d6f6d2da6fdccf93d38830c/Automatic-Identification-System-Stated-Requirements-for-Naval-Transponder-Security-Assurance.pdf
• Goward, D. (2023, September 5). China Finishing "High-precision Ground-based Timing System" — A Worry for the United States. GPS World. https://www.gpsworld.com/china-finishing-high-precision-ground-based-timing-system-a-worry-for-the-united-states/
• Gupta, B.B., Gaurav, A., Hsu, C.-H., & Jiao, B. (2021, November 15). Identity-Based Authentication Mechanism for Secure Information Sharing in the Maritime Transport System. IEEE Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems, 1-9. DOI: 10.1109/TITS.2021.3125402
• Hall, J., Lee, J., Benin, J., Armstrong, C., & Owen, H. (2015). IEEE 1609 Influenced Automatic Identification System (AIS). 2015 IEEE 81st Vehicular Technology Conference (VTC Spring), Glasgow, May 11-14, 2015, pp. 1-5. DOI: 10.1109/VTCSpring.2015.7145867
• Hu, Q., Jiang, Y., Zhang, J., Sun, X., & Zhang, S. (2015, November). Development of an Automatic Identification System Autonomous Positioning System. Sensors, 15(11), 28574-28591. DOI: 10.3390/s151128574
• Huang, I.-L., Lee, M.-C., Chang, L., & Huang, J.C. (2024, September 18). Development and Application of an Advanced Automatic Identification System (AIS)-Based Ship Trajectory Extraction Framework for Maritime Traffic Analysis. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 12(9), 1672. DOI: 10.3390/jmse12091672
• Humphreys, T., Chen, Q.A., Ozguner, U., & Toth, C. (2023, November 20). Resilience and Validation of GNSS PNT Solutions. Final Research Report, CARMEN: Center for Automated Vehicle Research with Multimodal Assurred Navigation. https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/72661/dot_72661_DS1.pdf
• Humphreys, T.E., Clements, Z.L., & Qin, W. (2024, September 30). GNSS Interference: Situational Awareness and LEO Backup. Final Report, CARMEN: Center for Automated Vehicle Research with Multimodal Assurred Navigation, University Transportation Centers Program, U.S. Department of Transportation. https://rosap.ntl.bts.gov/view/dot/77823/dot_77823_DS1.pdf
• International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities (IALA). (2019, June). The Technical Specification of VDES, Edition 3. IALA Guideline 1139. https://www.e-navigation.nl/sites/default/files/1139-ed.3-the-technical-specification-of-vdes_june-2019.pdf
• International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities (IALA). (2020). Collection of Regional Applications for AIS Application Specific Messages of Regional Applications for AIS Binary Messages. https://www.iala-aism.org/asm/
• International Association of Marine Aids to Navigation and Lighthouse Authorities (IALA). (2022, December 16). VHF Data Exchange System (VDES) Overview, Edition 3.0. IALA Guideline 1117. https://www.iala-aism.org/product/g1117/
• International Maritime Organization (IMO). (2010, June 2). Guidance on the Use of AIS Application-Specific Messages. SN.1/Circ. 289. http://vislab-ccom.unh.edu/~schwehr/papers/2009-Nav55-CG-AIX-Report-Annex1.pdf
• International Telecommunication Union (ITU). (2014, February). Technical Characteristics for an Automatic Identification System Using Time Division Multiple Access in the VHF Maritime Mobile Frequency Band. ITU-R Recommendation M.1371-5. M Series: Mobile, Radiodetermination, Amateur and Related Satellite Services. https://www.itu.int/dms_pubrec/itu-r/rec/m/R-REC-M.1371-5-201402-I!!PDF-E.pdf
• International Telecommunication Union (ITU). (2019, October). Assignment and Use of Identities in the Maritime Mobile Service. ITU-R Recommendation M.585-8. M Series: Mobile, Radiodetermination, Amateur and Related Satellite Services. https://www.itu.int/dms_pubrec/itu-r/rec/m/R-REC-M.585-8-201910-I!!PDF-E.pdf
• Iphar, C., Ray, C., & Napoli, A. (2019). Uses and Misuses of the Automatic Identification System. IEEE OCEANS Conference, Marseille, June 17-20, 2019. DOI: 10.1109/OCEANSE.2019.8867559
• JammerTest2022. Norway. (2022, October 10). GPSPATRON. https://gpspatron.com/jammertest2022-norway/
• JammerTest2023. Test Report. (2023, November 15). GPSPATRON. https://gpspatron.com/jammertest2023-test-report/
• Jakovlev, S., Daranda, A., Voznak, M., Lektauers, A., Eglynas, T., & Jusis, M. (2020, November 19). Analysis of the Possibility to Detect Fake Vessels in the Automatic Identification System. Proceeedings of 2020 61st International Scientific Conference on Information Technology and Management Science of Riga Technical University (ITMS), 15-16 Oct0ber 2020, Riga, Latvia, pp. 1-5. DOI: 10.1109/ITMS51158.2020.9259293
• Jaskólski, K., & Czapliński, W. (2024). Verification of the AIS Service Availability Model Based on Dynamic Data Streams Recorded From Three Receiving Stations in the Polish Coastal Area. Archives of Transportation, 70(2). DOI: 10.61089/aot2024.92f0xg34
• Jiang, Y., Wu, J., & Zhang, S. (2018, MArch 27). An Improved Positioning Method for Two Base Stations in AIS. Sensors, 18(4), 991. DOI: 10.3390/s18040991
• Johnson, G., Dykstra, K., Ordell, S., Forster, J., & Spilsbury, J. (2022, September). An Initial Assessment of VDE-Terrestrial Channel Performance. 35th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2022), Denver, Colorado, September 2022, pp. 426-438. DOI: 10.33012/2022.18488
• Johnson, G., Dykstra, K., Ordell, S., & Swaszek, P. (2020, October). R-Mode Positioning System Demonstration. 33rd International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2020), September 21-25, 2020, pp. 839-855. DOI: 10.33012/2020.17728
• Johnson, G., Swaszek, P., Alberding, J., Hoppe, M., & Oltmann, J.-H. (2014, September). The Feasibility of R-mode to Meet Resilient PNT Requirements for E-navigation. 27th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of the Institute of Navigation, ION GNSS 2014, Tampa, Florida. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gregory-Johnson-4/publication/289887465_The_feasibility_of_R-mode_to_meet_resilient_PNT_requirements_for_e-navigation/links/5ba011ad299bf13e6038a905/The-feasibility-of-R-mode-to-meet-resilient-PNT-requirements-for-e-navigation.pdf
• Kaklis, D., Kontopoulos, I., Varlamis, I., Emiris I.Z., & Varelas, T. (2024, January 12). Trajectory Mining and Routing: A Cross-Sectoral Approach. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 12(1), 157. 10.3390/jmse12010157
• Kelly, P. (2022, September 15). A Novel Technique to Identify AIS Transmissions From Vessels Which Attempt to Obscure Their Position by Switching Their AIS Transponder From Normal Transmit Power Mode to Low Transmit Power Mode. Expert Systems with Applications, 202, 117205. DOI: 10.1016/j.eswa.2022.117205
• Kessler, G.C. (2020, May 1). AIS Replay and Spoofing [video]. https://www.garykessler.net/gck/AIS_replay_and_spoofing.mp4
• Kessler, G.C. (2020, June). Protected AIS: A Demonstration of Capability Scheme to Provide Authentication and Message Integrity. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 14(2), 279-286. DOI: 10.12716/1001.14.02.02
• Kessler, G.C. (2021, August 22). AIS Spoof of a Warship [video]. https://www.garykessler.net/gck/202108_MOSKVA_spoof.mp4
• Kessler, G.C. (2022, April 17). AIS Tools. https://www.garykessler.net/software/index.html#ais
• Kessler, G.C. (2023, September 11). AIS Research Using a Raspberry Pi (2022 Update). https://www.garykessler.net/library/ais_pi.html
• Kessler, G.C., & Zorri, D.M. (2024, October). AIS Spoofing: A Tutorial for Researchers. 2024 IEEE 49th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Caen, France, October 10-12, 2024, pp. 1-7. DOI: 10.1109/LCN60385.2024.10639747
• Kessler, G.C., & Zorri, D.M. (2024, October). AIS Spoofing: A Tutorial for Researchers. 2nd International Special Track on Maritime Communication and Security (MarCaS), 2024 IEEE 49th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Caen, France, 8-10 October 2024. DOI: 10.1109/LCN60385.2024.10639747
• Klör, F., Bauer, J., Paulus, S., & Rademacher, M. (2024, October). Dude, Where's That Ship? Stealthy Radio Attacks Against AIS Broadcasts. 2nd International Special Track on Maritime Communication and Security (MarCaS), 2024 IEEE 49th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Caen, France, 8-10 October 2024. DOI: 10.1109/LCN60385.2024.10639674
• Kontopoulos, I., Spiliopoulos, G., Zissis, D., Chatzikokolakis, K., & Artikis, A. (2018, October 28). Countering Real-Time Stream Poisoning: An Architecture for Detecting Vessel Spoofing in Streams of AIS Data. 2018 IEEE 16th International Conferance on Dependable, Autonomic and Secure Computing, 16th International Conferance on Pervasive Intelligence and Computing, 4th International Conferance on Big Data Intelligence and Computing and Cyber Science and Technology Congress(DASC/PiCom/DataCom/CyberSciTech), Athens, Greece, August 12-15, 2018, pp. 981-986. DOI: 10.1109/DASC/PiCom/DataCom/CyberSciTec.2018.00139
• Koshevyy, V., & Shyshkin, O. (2017, June). VHF/DSC - ECDIS/AIS Communication on the Base of Lightweight Ethernet. The 12th International Conference on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation (TRANSNAV 2017). DOI: 10.1201/9781315099132-67
• Kozhaya, S., Saroufim, J., & Kassas, Z. M. (2025). Unveiling Starlink for PNT. NAVIGATION, 72(1). DOI: 10.33012/navi.685
• Lázaro, F., Raulefs, R., Bartz, H., & Jerkovits, T. (2021, September 12). VDES R-Mode: Vulnerability Analysis and Mitigation Concepts. International Journal of Satellite Communications and Networking. DOI: 10.1002/sat.1427
• Lázaro, F., Raulefs, R., Wang, W., Clazzer, F., & Plass, S. (2018, July 20). VHF Data Exchange System (VDES): An Enabling Technology for Maritime Communications. CEAS Space Journal, 11, 55-63. DOI: 10.1007/s12567-018-0214-8
• Lee, E., Mokashi, A.J., Moon, S.Y., & Kim, G. (2019, August 24). The Maturity of Automatic Identification Systems (AIS) and Its Implications for Innovation. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 7(9), 287. DOI: 10.3390/jmse7090287
• Li, H., Jiao, H., & Yang, Z. (2023, May 29). AIS Data-Driven Ship Trajectory Prediction Modelling and Analysis Based on Machine Learning and Deep Learning Methods. Transportation Research Part E: Logistics and Transportation Review, 175, 103152. DOI: 10.1016/j.tre.2023.103152
• Litts, R.E., Popescu, D.C., & Popescu, O. (2021, September 6). Authentication Protocol for Enhanced Security of the Automatic Identification System. 2021 IEEE International Black Sea Conference on Communications and Networking (BlackSeaCom), May 24-28, 2021, Bucharest, Romania. DOI: 10.1109/BlackSeaCom52164.2021.9527840
• Litts, R.E., Popescu, D.C., & Popescu, O. (2021, December). Authentication Protocol for Enhanced Security of the Automatic Identification System. Naval Engineers Journal, 133(4), 127-137. https://bt.e-ditionsbyfry.com/publication/?m=63540&i=731188&p=138&ver=html5
• Louart, M., Szkolnik, J.-J., Boudraa, A.-O., Le Lann, J.-C., & Le Roy, F. (2023, March 28). Detection of AIS Messages Falsifications and Spoofing by Checking Messages Compliance With TDMA Protocol. Digital Signal Processing, 136, 103983. DOI: 10.1016/j.dsp.2023.103983
• Luo, D., Chen, P., Yang, J., Li, X., & Zhao, Y. (2023, August 23). A New Classification Method for Ship Trajectories Based on AIS Data. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 11(9),1646. DOI: 10.3390/jmse11091646
• Lyu, H., Ma, X., Tan, G., Yin, Y., Sun, X., Zhang, L., Kang, X., & Song, J. (2024, July 31). Identification of Complex Multi-Vessel Encounter Scenarios and Collision Avoidance Decision Modeling for MASSs. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 12(8), 1289. DOI: 10.3390/jmse12081289
• Mazzarella, F., Vespe, M., Alessandrini, A., Tarchi, D., Aulicino, G., & Vollero, A. (2017, July 15). A Novel Anomaly Detection Approach to Identify Intentional AIS On-Off Switching. Expert Systems with Applications, 78, 110-123. DOI: 10.1016/j.eswa.2017.02.011
• Moltsen, L., & Pielmeier, S. (2019, September). Introduction to VDES (VHF Data Exchange System). sternula. https://www.sternula.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/09/2019-09-What-is-VDES.pdf
• Montgomery, P.Y., Humphreys, T.E., & Ledvina, B.M. (2009, March/April). A Multi-Antenna Defense: Receiver-Autonomous GPS Spoofing Detection. InsideGNSS. web.stanford.edu/group/scpnt/gpslab/website_files/anti-spoofing/insideGNSS_rasd-montgomery.pdf
• Neish, A., & Walter, T. (2020, May 20). Securing GNSS — A Trip Down Cryptography Lane. Inside GNSS. https://insidegnss.com/securing-gnss-a-trip-down-cryptography-lane/
• Niu, Y., Zhu, F., Wei, M., Du, Y., and Zhai, P. (2023, November 1). A Multi-Ship Collision Avoidance Algorithm Using Data-Driven Multi-Agent Deep Reinforcement Learning. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 11(11), 2101. DOI: 10.3390/jmse11112101
• Oh, S.H., Seo, D., & Lee, B. (2015). S3 (Secure Ship-to-Ship) Information Sharing Scheme using Ship Authentication in the e-Navigation. International Journal of Security and Its Applications, 9(2), 97-110. DOI: 10.14257/ijsia.2015.9.2.10
• Onyango, S.O., Owiredu, S.A., Kim, K.-I., Yoo, S.-L. A. (2022, November). Quasi-Intelligent Maritime Route Extraction from AIS Data.Sensors. Sensors, 22(22), 8639. DOI: 10.3390/s22228639
• Oveis, A.H., Meucci, G., Mancuso, F., & Cantelli-Forti, A. (2024, October). Advancing Radar Cybersecurity: Defending Against Adversarial Attacks in SAR Ship Recognition Using Explainable AI and Ensemble Learning. 2nd International Special Track on Maritime Communication and Security (MarCaS), 2024 IEEE 49th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Caen, France, 8-10 October 2024. DOI: 10.1109/LCN60385.2024.10639791
• Pany, T., Akos, D., Arribas, J., Bhuiyan, M.Z.H., Closas, P., Dovis, F., Fernandez-Hernandez, I., Fernández-Prades, C., Gunawardena, S., Humphreys, T., Kassas, Z.M., López Salcedo, J.A., Nicola, M., Psiaki, M.L., Rügamer, A., Song, Y.-J., & Won, J.H. (2024, Spring). GNSS Software-Defined Radio: History, Current Developments, and Standardization Efforts. NAVIGATION: Journal of the Institute of Navigation, 71(1). DOI: 10.33012/navi.628
• Pili, G., & Armenzoni, A. (2024, October). Fighting Shadows and Ghosts - A Conceptual Framework for Identification Deception Tactics (IDTs) and MARINE Approach. 2nd International Special Track on Maritime Communication and Security (MarCaS), 2024 IEEE 49th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Caen, France, 8-10 October 2024. DOI: 10.1109/LCN60385.2024.10639801
• Pili, G., Kessler, G.C., & Armenzoni, A. (2024, December 20). Oil Laundering at Sea: Defeating Russia's Shadow Fleet in the Mediterranean. Atlantic Council, Digital Forensic Research Lab (DRFLab). https://dfrlab.org/2024/12/20/oil-laundering-russia-osint/
• Pili, G., Crawford, J., & Loxton, N. (2023, September 13). Greyzone Lawfare: Russia and the Voyages of the SPARTA IV. Royal United Services Institute for Defence and Security Studies. https://rusi.org/explore-our-research/publications/commentary/greyzone-lawfare-russia-and-voyages-sparta-iv
• Platzer, P., & Vaujour, P.-D. (2019, June 25). AIS Spoofing and Dark-Target Detection Methodology. U.S. Patent: US 10,330,794 B2. https://patentimages.storage.googleapis.com/a7/27/6c/955999d5be23ea/US10330794.pdf
• Ray, C., Gallen, R., Iphar; C., Napoli, A., & Bouju, A. (2015, September 21). DeAIS Project: Detection of AIS Spoofing and Resulting Risks. OCEANS 2015, Genova, Italy, May 18-21, 2015, pp. 1-6.. DOI: 10.1109/OCEANS-Genova.2015.7271729
• Ribeiro, C.V., Paes, A., & de Oliveira, D. (2023, June 1). AIS-Based Maritime Anomaly Traffic Detection: A Review. Expert Systems with Applications, 120561. DOI: 10.1016/j.eswa.2023.120561
• Šafář, J., Grant, A., Williams, P., & Ward, N. (2020, January). Performance Bounds for VDES R-mode. Journal of Navigation, 73(1), 92-114. DOI: 10.1017/S0373463319000559
• Šafář, J., Grant, A., & Bransby, M. (2021, September). Performance bounds for VDE-SAT R-Mode. International Journal of Satellite Communications and Networking. DOI: 10.1002/sat.1429
• Satellite RF Tracking Follows the "Dark" Ships That AIS Can't See. (2022, July 26). The Maritime Executive. https://www.maritime-executive.com/article/satellite-rf-tracking-follows-the-dark-ships-that-ais-can-t-see
• Schütze, G. (2020, January 30). GPS (Part 1) - Structure, Mode of Operation, Technical and Physical Fundamentals of GPS. Marine-Pilots.com. https://www.marine-pilots.com/articles/14342-gps-part-1-structure-mode-of-operation-technical-and-physical-fundamentals-of-gps
• Schütze, G. (2020, February 26). GPS (Part 2), Physical and Technical Errors of GNSS - An Error Analysis. Marine-Pilots.com. https://www.marine-pilots.com/articles/14518-gps-part-2-physical-and-technical-errors-of-gnss-error-analysis
• Schütze, G. (2020, May 6). GPS (Part 3) - Accidental Interferences and Intended Interferences by Extern Technical Sytems. Marine-Pilots.com. https://www.marine-pilots.com/articles/17170-gps-part-3-accidental-interferences-and-intended-interferences-by-extern-technical-sytems
• Sciancalepore, S., Tedeschi, P., Aziz, A., & Di Pietro, R. (2021, March 30). Auth-AIS: Secure, Flexible, and Backward-Compatible Authentication of Vessels AIS Broadcasts. IEEE Transactions on Dependable and Secure Computing, 99. DOI: 10.1109/TDSC.2021.3069428
• :Seong, N., Kim, J., & Lim, S. (2023, Octiber 10). Graph-Based Anomaly Detection of Ship Movements Using CCTV Videos. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 11(10), 1956. 10.3390/jmse11101956
• Shishkin, A.V., Konovets, V., & Koshevyy, V.M. (2024, June). AIS R-Mode Trilateration for GPS Positioning and Timing Insurance. TransNav, The International Journal on Marine Navigation and Safety of Sea Transportation, 18(2), 369-374. DOI: 10.12716/1001.18.02.13
• Shyshkin, O. (2022, November). Cybersecurity Providing for Maritime Automatic Identification System. IEEE 41st International Conference on Electronics and Nanotechnology (ELNANO), Kyiv, Ukraine, October 10-14, 2022, pp. 736-740. DOI: 10.1109/ELNANO54667.2022.9926987
• Singh, S.K., & Heymann, F. (2020, June 8). Machine Learning-Assisted Anomaly Detection in Maritime Navigation Using AIS Data. 2020 IEEE/ION Position, Location and Navigation Symposium (PLANS), Portland, Oregon, April 20-23, 2020, pp. 832-838. DOI: 10.1109/PLANS46316.2020.9109806
• Soner, O., Kayisoglu, G., Bolat, P., & Tam, K. (2024, January). Risk Sensitivity Analysis of AIS Cyber Security Through Maritime Cyber Regulatory Frameworks. Applied Ocean Research, 142, 103855. DOI: 10.1016/j.apor.2023.103855
• Steiner, J., Havlíček, J., Duša, T., & Heinrichs, G. (2023, October 29). The Vulnerability of Inland Waterway AIS to GNSS Radio Frequency Interference. Engineering Proceedings, 54(1), 26. DOI: 10.3390/ENC2023-15461
• Stewart, A., Rice, E., & Safonov, P. (2018, April). Digital Authentication Strategies for the Automated Identification System. Midwest Instruction and Computing Symposium (MICS) 2018, Duluth, Minnesota, April 6-7, 2018. http://micsymposium.org/mics2018/proceedings/MICS_2018_paper_64.pdf
• Struck, M.C., & Stoppe, J. (2021). A Backwards Compatible Approach to Authenticate Automatic Identification System Messages. 2021 IEEE International Conference on Cyber Security and Resilience (CSR), pp. 524–529. DOI: 10.1109/CSR51186.2021.9527954
• Su, P., Sun, N., Zhu, L., Li, Y., Bi, R., Li, M., & Zhang, Z. (2017, April). A Privacy-Preserving and Vessel Authentication Scheme Using Automatic Identification System. SCC '17: Proceedings of the Fifth ACM International Workshop on Security in Cloud Computing, April 2017, pp. 83–90. DOI: 10.1145/3055259.3055261
• Thomas, A. (2024, December 19). How I Used Python & Splunk to Identify Suspicious Vessels. Shipping Intel. https://medium.com/shipping-intel/how-i-used-python-splunk-to-identify-suspicious-vessels-d6f53e1ad136
• U.S. Coast Guard (USCG). (2014, June 4). Encrypted Automatic Identification System (EAIS) Interface Design Description (IDD). Command, Control & Communications Engineering Center (C3CEN). https://www2.epic.org/foia/dhs/uscg/nais/EPIC-15-05-29-USCG-FOIA-20151030-Production-2.pdf
• Valčič, S., & Brčić, D. (2023, June 2). On Detection of Anomalous VHF Propagation over the Adriatic Sea Utilising a Software-Defined Automatic Identification System Receiver. Journal or Marine Science and Engineering, 11(6), 1170. DOI https://doi.org/10.3390/jmse11061170
• Visky, G., Katsikas, S.K., & Maennel, O. (2024, September). Lightweight Testbed for IEC61162-450-Related Cyber Security Research. 2024 IEEE International Conference on Cyber Security and Resilience (CSR), London, U.K., 2-4 September, pp. 638-643. DOI: 10.1109/CSR61664.2024.10679439
• Visky, G., Rohl, A., Katsikas, S., & Maennel, O. (2024, October). AIS Data Analysis: Reality in the Sea of Echos. 2nd International Special Track on Maritime Communication and Security (MarCaS), 2024 IEEE 49th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Caen, France, 8-10 October 2024. DOI: 10.1109/LCN60385.2024.10639765
• Visky, G., Rohl, A., Vaarandi, R., Katsikas, S., & Maennel, O.M. (2024, October). Hacking on the High Seas: How Automated Reverse-Engineering Can Assist Vulnerability Discovery of a Proprietary Communication Protocol. 2nd International Special Track on Maritime Communication and Security (MarCaS), 2024 IEEE 49th Conference on Local Computer Networks (LCN), Caen, France, 8-10 October 2024. DOI: 10.1109/LCN60385.2024.10639746
• Wang, X. & Xiao, Y. (2023, March 30). A Deep Learning Model for Ship Trajectory Prediction Using Automatic Identification System (AIS) Data. Information, 14(4), 212. DOI: doi.org/10.3390/info14040212
• Wimpenny, G., Lázaro, F., Šafář, J., & Raulefs, R. (2025, January). A Pragmatic Approach to VDES Authentication. Navigation - Journal of The Institute of Navigation, 72(1):navi.681. DOI: 10.33012/navi.681
• Wimpenny, G., Šafář, J., Grant, A., & Bransby, M. (2021, December 14). Securing the Automatic Identification System (AIS): Using Public Key Cryptography to Prevent Spoofing Whilst Retaining Backwards Compatibility. The Journal of Navigation, 1-13. DOI: 10.1017/S0373463321000837
• Wimpenny, G., Šafář, J., Grant, A., Bransby, M., & Ward, N. (2017, September). Cyber-Security and a Potential Role for the Maritime Cloud. 30th International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2017), Portland, Oregon, September 25-29, 2017, pp. 1800-1808. DOI: 10.33012/2017.15395
• Wimpenny, G., Šafář, J., Grant, A., Bransby, M., & Ward, N. (2018, September). Public Key Authentication for AIS and the VHF Data Exchange System (VDES). 31st International Technical Meeting of the Satellite Division of The Institute of Navigation (ION GNSS+ 2018), Miami, Florida, September 24-28, 2018, pp. 1841-1851.DOI: 10.33012/2018.15948
• Wirsing, M., Dammann, A., & Raulefs, R. (2020, January). Investigating R-Mode Signals for the VDE System. OCEANS 2019 MTS/IEEE SEATTLE, October 27-31, 2019. DOI: 10.23919/OCEANS40490.2019.8962635
• Wolsing, K., Roepert, L., Bauer, J., & Wehrle, K. (2022, January 14). Anomaly Detection in Maritime AIS Tracks: A Review of Recent Approaches. Journal of Marine Science and Engingeering, 10(1), 112. DOI: 10.3390/jmse10010112
• Yang, C., Li, S., & Hu, Z. (2023, November 27). Analysis of the Development Status of eLoran Time Service System in China. Applied Sciences, 13(23), 12703. DOI: 10.3390/app132312703
• Yang, D., Wu, L., Wang, S., Jia, H., & Li, K.X. (2019, July). How Big Data Enriches Maritime Research – A Critical Review of Automatic Identification System (AIS) Data Applications. Transport Reviews, 39(6), 755-773. DOI: 10.1080/01441647.2019.1649315
• Yang, Y., Ren, X., Jia, X., & Sun, B. (2023, May). Development Trends of the National Secure PNT System Based on BDS. Science China Earth Sciences, 66(5), 929–938. DOI: 10.1007/s11430-022-1069-7
• Zhang, J., Zhang, S., & Wang, J. (2017, May 22). Pseudorange Measurement Method Based on AIS Signals. Sensors, 17(5), 1183. DOI: 10.3390/s17051183
• Zhu, W., Wang, S., Liu, S., Yang, L., Zheng, X., Li, B., & Zhang, L. (2023, October 7). Dynamic Multi-Period Maritime Accident Susceptibility Assessment Based on AIS Data and Random Forest Model. Journal of Marine Science and Engineering, 11(10), 1935. DOI: 10.3390/jmse11101935

[Top of Section | Top of Page]

---

About the Authors and the Book

Gary C. Kessler, Ph.D., CISSP, is President of Gary Kessler Associates, a consulting, research, and training company located in Ormond Beach, Florida. He has been in the information security and education fields for more than 40 years, and is a retired professor of cybersecurity. Gary is a Principal Consultant at Fathom5, a Non-Resident Senior Fellow at the Atlantic Council, a visiting faculty member in the Electrical Engineering & Cyber Systems Section at the U.S. Coast Guard Academy, on the Board of Advisers of Cydome, and has testified before the U.S. House of Representatives about maritime cybersecurity issues. Gary has a B.A. in mathematics from Humboldt State University (California), an M.S. degree in computer science from the University of Vermont, and a Ph.D. in computing technology in education from Nova Southeastern University (Florida). His research interests focus on maritime cybersecurity, particularly related to AIS, as well as network protocols, digital forensics, and cybersecurity management and policy. Gary is Chief of the Cybersecurity Prevention Operations Division in the USCG Auxiliary, a PADI Master SCUBA Diver Trainer, and holds a USCG 50GT master merchant mariner certificate. Gary lives in Florida with his wife, Gayle.

Dr. Steven Shepard is the founder of the Shepard Communications Group in Williston, Vermont, and co-founder of the Executive Crash Course Company. A professional author, photographer, audio producer, and educator with more than 35 years of experience in the technology industry, he has written books and articles on a wide variety of topics. Steve received his undergraduate degree in Spanish and Romance Philology from the University of California at Berkeley, his master's degree in International Business from St. Mary's College, and his Ph.D. at the Da Vinci Institute in Rivonia, South Africa. He is a Senior Fellow of the Da Vinci Institute of South Africa; a Founding Director of the African Telecoms Institute; and an Emeritus member of the Board of Trustees of Champlain College. He was Resident Director of the University of Southern California's Executive Leadership and Advanced Management Programs for more than 25 years and is adjunct professor at Emory University and the Da Vinci Institute, among others. Thanks to a childhood spent in Spain, Steve is native fluent in Spanish and routinely publishes and delivers presentations in that language. He lives in Vermont with his wife Sabine, who has put up with him for more than 45 years.

The book can be purchased from Amazon in paperback (USD16.99) or Kindle (USD9.99) format.

Get more information about Gary (Amazon Author Page | Web site) and Steve (Amazon Author Page | Web site).

[Top of Page]

---

© 2020-, Gary C. Kessler & Steven D. Shepard